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Thanks for answers on essay 1 , some clarifications:

British Moslem King : yes sir British coin from 8th century definite proof for that.
British celts were closely related to Iberians (Spanish) who finally adopted eslam celtiberians.. Then notice the change of trade routes in Britain from south Moslem territories , to north after the Norman conquest 1066 , towards Vikings then again to south to Russia; (another clan of northmen (Normans) moved south to Russia(Rhos) and started plundering to eastern Moslem territories.
Note that Siberia also had been under Moslems.

- As to Constantinople, in the book "Die Kunst Dis Eslam", Saurdel Thoming.
coin of Moslem ruler of Constantinople dating to 1096 A.D., and before that we have the Moslem Calif Yazid forbidding iconoclasm and church emperor Leo obeying.

- yes and it's a fact that by the time Moslem libraries in Spain, Italy and Oxford were full with hundred thousands of books and their laboratories experiencing hundreds of experiments and inventions, franc king Charlemagne didn't know how to read or write. It was hundreds of years later that franc kings took interest in translating Arabic books and started enlightenment.

- And it's reported by the 16th century Queen Elizabeth got interest of the numerous Arabic books in her palace and Andalusian (Spanish) literature and ordered its translation . Some translations of which she asked the actor Shakespeare just to put his signature on. (Dynasties - Tate Publication).

- Backward Arabs: yes T-Dog , you're right , situation now in most Arab countries is totally far from any Eslamic preaching - situation hibernation. We call it new gahelia - gahelia is the term used to call the period before Eslam meaning ignorance. - but remember you're speaking about a great civilization that started 1400 years before, confronted with fierce conspiracies against its existence from the start, Eslam stood fierce for over 1000 years. But definitely blame not on religions. - comparison is between rich and poor and the difference in their manners and standards. Have to ask from where rich countries got their riches to know if the answer is fair.

- Thanks rabi for your information about Eslamic rule in most Asia including: Georgia , Armenia, China , India, Khazakhistan, Turgistan, Tadjekistan, Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, Burma, Laos, Vietnam, Phillippines, Burma Indonesia and the islands of the pacific; haven't studied about it but surely had the same fatal end : ethnic cleansed by brethren Catholics. Terrifying system for cleansing; the irony how its committers were appointed sainthood and vast properties. But you haven't mentioned European Moslem territories - no more secret history !

- Another thing : you've said Moslems conquered Visigoths, that's not true actually , it was the Visigoths (sons of king Witiza) who called the Arab Governor of Tangier Tarek, for their help after Roderick usurped their kingdom and raped their lady. Tarek crossed the strait of Gibraltar and with his help Visigoths had decessive victory and Roderick and his army disappeared from history. After that most visigothic Nobles accepted Eslam and ruled over their territories.
That's why we find the word reconquest of Spain after 800 years inadequate , for the Normans who later conquered Spain and ethnic cleansed its inhabitants (whether Moslems ,Jews or Orthodox Christians) , were never Spanish .
And we have also to go back to Spanish origions since 3000 B.C. when a stock of Northern Africans (Orans) and Hamitic (Berber) were first to inhabite the Iberian Penninsula.(Spain).

- Another clarification Castile : we'd like to add that the whole of Spain and Portugal were under Arabs. Yes during the reign of of Charlemagne , the Franks attacked Barcelona (801 A.D.) and other cities and massacred its inhabitants, but was regained by Arabs. But again Normans attack conspiring with mountain chieftains . Later some chieftains moved from Asturian mountains to central plains, made their capital Congas de Onis later Ovids (Asturia), then Leon. Title King of Leon was first assumed by Ordono 913. Sancho I Garces (905-926) tried to add the small county of Aragon but was punished by AbdElRahman III and it was returned to Caliphate. But Sancho III (1000-35) could usurp it with help of Franks. He then assumed the emperial title in Leon
- Later Castile was made a kingdom and given to his second son Ferdinand. Aragon was erected into a kingdom and given to his fourth son Ramiro who joined Sobrarta and Rebagorza into his new kingdom of Aragon 1037. Normans attacks were with popes permission and the pope gave them title Catholic kings and they consequently consulted the pope and later established the holy office in Castile. Catholic cortes commited torturing crimes against non catholics including the burning alive for the slightest doubt of refusing catholic baptism. There were orders from the popes for the successive ethnic cleansing , including cluniac orders and cistercian orders.
- Portugal became an independent kingdom 1139.

- Thanks Tin-Can : in your article ( was it Tin who mentioned that ) mentioning that Jerusalem was one of few cities that Catholics gave back to Moslems. It's true that any town that came under Catholic center for ethnic cleansing never escaped its fate, but why did it happen in case of Jerusalem and why have they handled it back to Kurdish Salah El Din ? that's under study .
we know from Zionists' protocols that they want to rule from Jerusalem first, then finally from Rome. Did they give up first time when Eslam still stood strong for aranging for another more fierce and fatal attack. Historians would have to answer.

- And Nickel it's very unfair now to say that what Moslem civilization had done was passing old Greek science to Europeans, for as many honest historians put it : Arab scientists had inventions and scientific progress far beyond what antiquities reached, but the problem is that they were rarely passed by their real arab names.
( just hint: The arabic word Greek = Eghreek means ancient , whether Egyptian, Chinese, Indien, persian , not necessarily European Greek).

- Moslem Arabs First To America : We hear about two journeys by 8th A.D. century to new lands, one from Samarkand eastern Asia, and the other from Senegal (a strong arabian center at that time), and nearest spot to America. Later when Christopher starts his journey from there and reaches Cuba (called by arabs Bahia), he renamed it Bahia new Christopher Columbos.

More references :
- History of Europe   by J.M. Roberts.
- Knights of War.
- Die Kunst Dis Islam - Saurall Thoming.   Britoli.
- Venice and Antiquities   ,   Fortini Brawn.
   Encyclopedia of World Arts - Mc Graw hill.

We have answer for your question Mark - just take it easy.

We learn of British Moslem coin by the time of King Offa 8th century.

As for Constantinople, as mentioned in "Die Kunst Dis Islam" - Saurdll - Thoming - Britoli- 1973 . icon 405 (c) , coin by the name of Sultan of Constantinople Soliman Ibn Hasaan - Constantinople , 1099 A.D.

The coin was obviously brought across by traders during or after the 7th century, there is no other reasonable explanation.

I'm only going to respond to one point and then I'm going to ignore the rest of this: the only place where the Catholics conquered the Muslim Empire was in Spain, where the process was completed in 1492 after more than two hundred years of effort. In other places, when the Golden Age of various places faded, locals were able to throw off the rule of the Caliphs--especially since the Caliphs didn't have enough troops to put down mass rebellions and couldn't call for reinforcements. In other places, Muslim rule simply faded away. The countries that remain Muslim today are places where the majority of everybody remained Muslim, in spite of the fact that the Caliphs and Sultans had lost control.

Even in places like the Philippines, there are still hundreds of islands where the majority of the population is Muslim, such as the islands occupied by the Moros. They have been fighting a guerilla war against Christians and everybody else for centuries.

The Catholics certainly never conquered the Muslims in India and China, both of which remained Muslim for a century or more. Although there are still pockets of Muslims inside India today--both Pakistan and Bengladesh were originally part of India--and actively observant communities in China, they are no longer the majority. In both instances, the locals quietly seized power and replaced many of the the Caliphs and Sultans with the Maharajahs. The rest of the Caliphs were slowly replaced when the British took over beginning in the 18th century.

You need to do your homework.

I don't know when they come but somebody must have run the corner shop in the 8th Century.

Wasn't Hairybreeks the guy who was mistaken for the Missing Link and forced to live out his days in the Toledo Zoo?

Swear , wouldn't bother if hiding a truth wasn't a great sin - I'm not ready to bear.

Accept it, reject it .. each by his deed is taken.

Come man, speak the truth, say it, you're telling us that those small moslem pockets left in China, India ( Delhi Eslamic Republic), Phillipines, Russia or whatsoever, others ( which even its Eslamic names ommitted and Eslamic era systemmmatically left blank in histories or unfairly propagated against , is what's left from the Tolerant Moslem Empire.

The Moros of Philippinnes as the Moores of Spain as they called them, situation before in those Moslem countries was like any Moslem country now, Moslem majority but any citizen living with entire toleration whether Christians, jews or whatever; toleration that really should recognize admiration. Far from the very unfair propaganda, Moslem tolerance for others isn't matched with any other culture, never and would never. I won't be exagerating if I say they love Christians, for that's what their religion preaches ( as they believe in Jesus and Mary the Virgin), same as to Jews before the land issue. And come to the British who had conquered and exploited their lands , come and they love you, for it wasn't you personnally who did so, very fair, and why you return those noble manners with such intolerance and unfairness.

Why is that unfairness with people that're already gone without trace (no rights, no memory, no fair judgement yet) , all they need is a word of truth from humanity ;

to say yes they were there once and were gone, for one reason : they were Moslems : Tolerant Moslems.

Speak the truth man, leave misleading fanatic propaganda behind; what shall zionists do? kill us - let them kill; Torment? have that honour for truth's sake.

Imagine yourself in the Judgement Day , what would be your excuse for hiding a truth that would save others if it were for just one person, no excuse accepted .

Have brains , have hearts, have choice.

DOESN'T SEEM TO BE THE CASE IN ANY MUSLIM RUN COUNTRY. NOPE, CAN'T THINK OF ONE, CAN YOU??

The three ways you can tell if a Muslim was in your backyard:

1) The grass is dead

2) The garbage is missing

3) Your dog is pregnant

Lets's give it another trial : From Encyclopedia of World Cultures - 4 - <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place> - Bennet :<o:p></o:p>

<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Castile</st1:place></st1:country-region> : <o:p></o:p>

Originally populated by Iberians and later Iberoceltic peoples . <st1:country-region w:st="on">Castile</st1:country-region> was for a time ruled by <st1:City w:st="on">Rome</st1:City>, and later by the <st1:City w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Moores</st1:place></st1:City>. For a time governed by counts under the supremacy of Asturious and Leon, later annexed by Sancho of Navarre 1026-1035 who gave <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Castile</st1:place></st1:country-region> to his son Ferdinand in 1033. <st1:country-region w:st="on">Castile</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Leon</st1:country-region> were finally united under Ferdinand III in 1230 when he conquered large part of southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region>. p.57<o:p></o:p>

From Encyclopedia Britannica :<o:p></o:p>

Asturia : Asturian capital was moved from Langas de Oris to Ovieda, later pushed forward from the mountains to the central plains. Garcia I (909-914) moved the capital from the mountains to the Asturian mountains to the city of <st1:City w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Leon</st1:place></st1:City> . p.117.<o:p></o:p>

<st1:country-region w:st="on">Navarre</st1:country-region> : Sancho I Garces (905-926) added the small <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:PlaceType w:st="on">county</st1:PlaceType> of <st1:PlaceName w:st="on">Aragon</st1:PlaceName></st1:place> to his dominion but suffered severly at the hands of Abd -ar Rahman II - a period of subordination to the calipahte followed. Sancho III (1000-35) assumed the emperial title in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Leon</st1:place></st1:country-region>, but his empire was built on a simple desire for personal agrandisement . He regarded his empire as his personal property and distributed it among his sons. Garcia Sanchez III inherited <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Navarre</st1:place></st1:country-region> . 1025-54. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Castile</st1:place></st1:country-region> was made into a kingdom and given to his second son Ferdinand. Sobrarbe and Ribagorza to the third , while <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Aragon</st1:place></st1:country-region> was also erected into a kingdom for his fourth son Ramiro 1035-65. p117 .<o:p></o:p>

<st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region> (The Iberians) : During reign of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region></st1:place>, true focus of the Iberians Civilization was the southeastern corner of the land . There a stock out of northern African (<st1:City w:st="on">Oran</st1:City>) and probably (Berber) have been infiltrating ever since the the aenealethic days of the <st1:City w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Almeria</st1:place></st1:City> culture (c.3000 B.C.) p.113.<o:p></o:p>

<st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region> : during reign of <st1:country-region w:st="on">spain</st1:country-region> of Visigothic king Witiza 701-709 it seems certain that Julian , the emperial count or govrenor of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:State w:st="on">ceuta</st1:State></st1:place> incited the Arab viceroy in north Africa by arrangement with the sons of Witiza.. By the time of Roderick 710 , the disintigration of the state was complete. At the invitation of Roderick's oponents (sons of Visigothic King Witiza), the Arab governor of Tangier , crossed the straits of Gibraltar in 711 with Berbers , awaited Roderick to advance near the laguna Janda, south of Nijer de la Frontier. There Roderick was defeated . Roderick himself disappearing from history . Arab forces laid seige to <st1:State w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ceuta</st1:place></st1:State>, the last reminent of the Byzantine possessions. (Encyclopedia Britannica - vol. 21 - p. 116.).<o:p></o:p>

(From Western Civilizations - volume 4 - Burns.). <o:p></o:p>

<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Leon</st1:place></st1:country-region> : was moslem from 717. In the beginning of the 10thc., became the capital of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:PlaceType w:st="on">kingdom</st1:PlaceType> of <st1:PlaceName w:st="on">Leon</st1:PlaceName></st1:place>. <o:p></o:p>

<st1:country-region w:st="on">Castile</st1:country-region> : capture of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:City w:st="on">Toledo</st1:City></st1:place> in 1083 saw the formation of new Castile. p.989.<o:p></o:p>

From The Middle Ages : -Richard O'Neil).<o:p></o:p>

Catholic Monarchs: persuaded popes to authorize the Spanish inquisition (The Holy Office); its main target were Marrows (convert jews) and Moriscs (converted moslems). Those who confessed to heresy, usually under torture were often burned alive in mass cremonies called autes-da-fe (acts of faith); executed or not , their wealth was forfeit to the state . In 1492 all celt jews were ordered to convert or leave <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Spanish inquisition were only abolished in 1834. p.92<o:p></o:p>

Dominican Friars of the inquisition were so zealous with merciless cruelty. p.97<o:p></o:p>

Capture of Valencia from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:City w:st="on">Moores</st1:City></st1:place>: ElCid had its governor burned alive and massacred many citizens. He governed in Alfonso's name. But <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Valencia</st1:place></st1:country-region> was retaken by Arabs after his death. p.48.<o:p></o:p>

The inquisition : began in 1478 under the control of the monarchy , directed from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">castile</st1:country-region></st1:place> to crush what remained of Moslem religions - often bloodily. by 1492 it had far more exceeded its origianl purpose of ensuring that Moores and Jews were expelled from the country. In 1609, Philip III ordereed the expulsion of the Moriscas (descendants of Christianized Moores as well. As a result when Charles II took the throne 1665, he inherited a country that had been stripped of nearly all of its tradespeople and artisans . Agriculture dedclined . Art and literature degenerated. p.58.<o:p></o:p>

Lets's give it another trial

From Encyclopedia of World Cultures - 4 - Europe - Bennet :
Castile :
Originally populated by Iberians and later Iberoceltic peoples . Castile was for a time ruled by Rome, and later by the Moores. For a time governed by counts under the supremacy of Asturious and Leon, later annexed by Sancho of Navarre 1026-1035 who gave Castile to his son Ferdinand in 1033. Castile and Leon were finally united under Ferdinand III in 1230 when he conquered large part of southern Spain. p.57
From Encyclopedia Britannica

Navarre : Sancho I Garces (905-926) added the small county of Aragon to his dominion but suffered severly at the hands of Abd -ar Rahman II - a period of subordination to the calipahte followed. Sancho III (1000-35) assumed the emperial title in Leon, but his empire was built on a simple desire for personal agrandisement . He regarded his empire as his personal property and distributed it among his sons. Garcia Sanchez III inherited Navarre . 1025-54. Castile was made into a kingdom and given to his second son Ferdinand. Sobrarbe and Ribagorza to the third , while Aragon was also erected into a kingdom for his fourth son Ramiro 1035-65. p117 .

Spain (The Iberians) : During reign of Spain, true focus of the Iberians Civilization was the southeastern corner of the land . There a stock out of northern African (Oran) and probably (Berber) have been infiltrating ever since the the aenealethic days of the Almeria culture (c.3000 B.C.) p.113.

Spain : during reign of spain of Visigothic king Witiza 701-709 it seems certain that Julian , the emperial count or govrenor of ceuta incited the Arab viceroy in north Africa by arrangement with the sons of Witiza.. By the time of Roderick 710 , the disintigration of the state was complete. At the invitation of Roderick's oponents (sons of Visigothic King Witiza), the Arab governor of Tangier , crossed the straits of Gibraltar in 711 with Berbers , awaited Roderick to advance near the laguna Janda, south of Nijer de la Frontier. There Roderick was defeated . Roderick himself disappearing from history . Arab forces laid seige to Ceuta, the last reminent of the Byzantine possessions. (Encyclopedia Britannica - vol. 21 - p. 116.).
(From Western Civilizations - volume 4 - Burns.).

Leon : was moslem from 717. In the beginning of the 10thc., became the capital of the kingdom of Leon.

Castile : capture of Toledo in 1083 saw the formation of new Castile. p.989.
From The Middle Ages : -Richard O'Neill.

Catholic Monarchs: persuaded popes to authorize the Spanish inquisition (The Holy Office); its main target were Marrows (convert jews) and Moriscs (converted moslems). Those who confessed to heresy, usually under torture were often burned alive in mass cremonies called autes-da-fe (acts of faith); executed or not , their wealth was forfeit to the state . In 1492 all celt jews were ordered to convert or leave Spain. Spanish inquisition were only abolished in 1834. p.92

Dominican Friars of the inquisition were so zealous with merciless cruelty. p.97
Capture of Valencia from Moores: ElCid had its governor burned alive and massacred many citizens. He governed in Alfonso's name. But Valencia was retaken by Arabs after his death. p.48.

The inquisition : began in 1478 under the control of the monarchy , directed from castile to crush what remained of Moslem religions - often bloodily. by 1492 it had far more exceeded its origianl purpose of ensuring that Moores and Jews were expelled from the country. In 1609, Philip III ordereed the expulsion of the Moriscas (descendants of Christianized Moores as well. As a result when Charles II took the throne 1665, he inherited a country that had been stripped of nearly all of its tradespeople and artisans . Agriculture dedclined . Art and literature degenerated. p.58.

Malaya : p.709 ;
Projects into the China sea and forms the most southerly portion of the continent of Asia. All the early history of Malaya is obscure (! As usual).

Mallacca : the first Malay kingdom was a dependency of Thailand . Malay dynasty were Moslems. Only about 1450 to 1490 can chronicles start . The Thai rulers continued to demand the overland route. If the Malayo were Moslems , they readily the rest of Malacca of Hindu , Chinese and other trades.

Mallacca : assumed the commercial role of modern Singapore .
The Portuguese arrived in 1498 by Cape route. In 1511, they stormed the city. The Portuguese exploited to the full the commercial possibilities of Mallacca, but never succeeded in destroying the native Moslem monarchy. Mallacca was repeatedly but unsuccessfully attacked till it fell to Dutch 1641. p.712

Philippinnes :
Were discovered in 1512 and formally occupied 1565 during reign of Philip II after whom they were named . Good intentions of Spanish kings rarely did much more than pave the colonial hell. P.123
From Encyclopedia Britannica - Vol. 15 - Spain.

At least you've seen sense and dropped the idea of an 8th century Muslim King of England.

From Western Civilizations �?(Vol. 1 - Twelve ed. �?Their History and Culture).

Amazing as it may seem to us , hardly any people in Charlemagne’s entire realm were literate . So thoroughly had the rudiments of learning been forgotten since the decay of Roman city life. Even as late as 1050, Europe had not changed very much from the way it had been since the end of Carolingian family.

Carolingian Family : of Frankish aristocrats , the dynasty that they established to rule Western Europe after deposing the Merovingian king Cheldric by Pepin in c. 750.

Franks: members of a Germanic speaking people who invaded the Roman western empire in the 5th c. A.D. , dominating France, Belgium and western Germany. Francs emerged into recorded history from in the 3rd c.A.D. as a Germanic tribe living in the east bank of lower Rhinne river. They were politically independent tribes.

Charlemagne’s empire disintegrated by mid 9th c. p936.

(The New English Encyclopedia Britannica - vol. 4 - 15th edition.)

We said Charlemagne wasn’t Spanish. So was Charles V son of Joanna the mad and Philip I and others.

Charles V was from Habsburg (Austria); he arrived Spain 1517 unable to speak Spanish. ( Encycl. Br. - Spain �?vol 15. p.123. )

Neither was charlemagne Roman.

Last Roman Emperor in the west Romulus Augustus, called Augustulus (little emperor) by barbarian leaders who kept him in power �?was deposed by Odoacer the Goth in c. 476 . By 568 Italy fell to the Lombards . p.18

(Historical Facts �?The Middle Ages - Richard O’Neill).

Otto: who revived Charlemagne’s empire in the 10th c., and his successors continued to call themselves emperors.

(Western civilizations �?vol. I �?Burns).

Crusades : The name given to the series of wars undertaken by the Christians of Western Europe from 1096 to 1291.

The results of crusades may be rewritten dawn as failure . Everywhere in the 15th century I Europe and in Asia, the crescent was victorious over the cross; and crusade and mission perished together. But a crusade won for crusaders the coast of the eastern Baltic (Teutonic Order), and the centuries of the Spanish crusades ended in the conquest of the whole Spain. P . 793.

In the first place crusades were attempts at feudal colonization and as such they resulted in a number of colonies-kingdom of Jerusalem - Kingdom of Cyprus �?the latin empire of Constantinople. P.793.

The papacy had grown as a result of the crusades. Popes had preached them, popes had financed them, popes had sent their legates to lead them. P.794

Encyclopedia Britannica - vol.14

Islamic Science : after the fall of the western Roman empire science disappeared with it, but in eastern Roman empire was valuable Greek scientific literature . p.119.

Alchemy: is a term used to describe very diverse kind of literature, from Egypt , From Byzantine, from China; however Arabic speaking chemists derived many recipes and methods for industrial processes, and their experiments demanding special apparatus. The greatest Arabic writing Alchemist Rhazes who completed his work by 900, makes the earliest known suggestion for furnishing chemical laboratory. Industrial technology and alchemical apparatus of Arabic origin had an important role in the rise of modern chemistry.

Mathematics: Moslem Persian Ibn Musa El Khawarizmi c. 825 from whose name the medieval word for arithmetic, algorism was formed.

In Astronomy : their authors thought to replace the ptolemic by a strictly concentric system.

In Medicine :It is impossible not to mention Avicenna 979- 1037 whose work was for centuries standard in latin. The great Arabic contribution to medicine is in the introduction of new drugs, many of which are still in use.

In 11th c. the west began to come into relation with the wisdom of the east through Latin translations of Arabic works. It is remarkable that the accumulation of knowledge derived from the Arabic , involved rapid development in the whole mental life of Europe.

And that’s Professor Welfred Hoffman (Harvard University), previous professor of sociology in New York Union Colledge and later German Embassador in Morrocco who announced his convert to Eslam in 1980 (Morad Farid); in his book “Dairies Of A German Moslem�? he admits that westerns fully misunderstand Islam , and that the unfair attack against Eslam has its roots long ago since they had to zeal preaches for crusades, and that the concept of the term Holy war was merely European. “They haven’t realized that ethnic discrimination barriers has no existence in Islam�?

As he said he was gradually discovering the harmony between Eslam and total truth.

The Francis Drake issue :

Queen Elizabeth (1533-1683) sent her man sir Francis Walsingham 1539-1590, to inspect about the Spanish fleet . In 1588 Francis Drake attacked and destroyed great part of Spanish shipping at Cadiz (Spain).

The Armada assembled at Lisbon to revenge and attack England by orders of Philip of Spain but the end was disastrous ; many Spanish ships were wrecked , and at Ireland their crews were massacred, only few of these could return , in these death and sickness were appalling .

Thus by destruction of Armada fleet, British fleet became the strongest.

Armada : Spanish fleet inherited from Arabs.

Moslems fleet was the world’s strongest from 7th to 12th century ; they had rudders that Europeans knew hundreds of years later.

Vertical rudders at the stern �?a method introduced from the east to Europe after c.1200 p.70.

The word Admiral for the highest naval rank comes from the Arabic “Amir�?

p.71. (From the Middle Ages - Richard O’Neill).

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