JimsonWeed:
History, Perceptions, Traditional Uses, and Potential Therapeutic Benefits of the Genus Datura
HerbalGram. 2006;69:40-50 © American Botanical Council
by Kofi Busia & Fiona Heckels
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Illustration by Christy Krames, MA, CMI
Christy Krames is a Certified Medical Illustrator living and working in Austin, Texas. She received her Master's degree in Medical Illustration in 1981 from UT Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas. Examples of her medical and biological artwork may be seen at www.kramestudios.com. |
For many years, native peoples and tribes in various parts of the world have taken intoxicating plant preparations in religious rituals, divination, witchcraft, and healing ceremonies.1 "Western" interest in hallucinogenic plants or drugs has focused mainly on either the potential for psychotherapeutic applications or their use to induce "controlled psychosis" to understand psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. Studies on ritual psychoactive plants could provide further insights into their proper use or misuse, improve clinical management of intoxication with herbal "highs," and perhaps also help in the discovery of therapeutically beneficial chemical compounds. The solanaceous plants such as those from the genus Datura have been used in both traditional and modern medicine as treatments for mental illness, tumors, infections, and even as aphrodisiacs. This paper examines attitudes toward Datura's hallucinogenic effects, its potential benefits, and describes traditional, therapeutic, and recreational uses in Europe and other cultures. Research on mechanisms is also described to highlight the scientific rationale for Datura's use among indigenous peoples.
Introduction
For centuries various species of Datura have been revered as sacred visionary plants by virtually all peoples who experience them. Datura is a member of the family Solanaceae (deadly nightshade family), which also includes edible plants like tomatoes, potatoes, eggplant, and peppers (i.e., fruits of the genus Capsicum). The genus is widely distributed in the warm and tropical regions of the world and consists of potent hallucinogenic plants such as D. inoxia, D. stramonium, D. metel, D. wrightii, D. ceratocaula, D. quercifolia, D. tatula, D. discolor, and D. fastuosa.2 (The so-called "tree Daturas," which are significant in various South American shamanistic practices and ethnomedicine, formerly belonged to this genus but now have been reclassified into the genus Brugmanisa.)
The name Datura comes from the early Sanskrit dustura3 or dahatura, meaning "divine inebriation."4 The plants usually grow as herbaceous annuals or perennials and are strikingly characterised by beautifully colored (white to pinkish) trumpet-like flowers, which typically exude a fragrant odor nocturnally. They also bear walnut-sized seed capsules covered with spiky thorns, hence the English common name "thorn apple" and the German Stechapfel.3,4,5
From the years 1330 to 1700, solanaceous plants were thought of as "diabolic incarnations."6 Hence Datura became known by names such as "devil's apple," "mad apple," and "devil's work."5 This is reflected over 300 years later in an English newspaper headline, which read thus: "Hooked! On the Devil's Weed."7
The name "Jimson weed," the preferred common name established by the herb industry in the United States,8 is a corruption of "Jamestown weed" in reference to the experience of Captain John Smith and his band of English colonizers in their eventually unsuccessful attempt to establish a colony at what was called Jamestown in the Virginia colony in 1607. British soldiers were reportedly given boiled Jamestown weed (Jimson weed) for inclusion in a salad, which the soldiers readily ate and then experienced several days of erratic behavior. Several contradictory accounts are given, but the most reliable appears to be that the soldiers may have been served this accidentally.9 (See sidebar on page 50 for details.)
The origins of Datura are shrouded in uncertainty due to the species' wide distribution, but Mexico and Central America appear to have the largest concentration. This has led to suggestions that it was probably introduced into Europe by the explorers of the New World. Others believe that Datura originated from the Caspian Sea, spreading south to Africa and east to Asia, from where it was brought to Europe by travelers during the Middle-Ages.10 It is probable that the Roma (aka "gypsies") brought Datura from India to Europe in the early 15th century,2 although Gerard claims to have been the distributor of the first seeds of D. stramonium (which he refers to as D. inoxia) in England.11 Datura's usage was subsequently integrated into the sophisticated cultural belief systems associated with "witchcraft."2
Whatever the origin, Datura appears to have played an important role as a "culture plant," particularly in Asia and the New World, for many years. Throughout these parts of the world, the species was particularly valued for its ability to induce visionary dreams, to help in foretelling the future, and to reveal the causes of disease and misfortune. Records indicate that the Aztecs knew the genus Datura. A particular species, which was then referred to as toloache, was used as an enema or suppository for pain relief in initiation rituals; it was also administered as a hallucinogen. Another species, D. ceratocaula, called atlinan by the Aztecs, was so revered that only the priests were allowed to use it. It supposedly enabled them to hold counsel with the gods and to foretell the future. In addition, it was used to find stolen objects and even to make prognosis of black magic associated illness. Datura ceratocaula was also used in an ointment to treat cracked soles, sores, bruises, pustules, as plasters for ulcers, and as a poultice for rheumatic pains.12, 13
Western Attitudes towards Datura: Pleasure and Intoxication
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Jimson weed Datura stramonium L. from Köhler’s Medizinal-Pflanzen in naturgetreuen Abbildungen mit kurz erläuterndem Texte : Atlas zur Pharmacopoea germanica, Volume 1 of 3 (originally published in 1887). 1995-2006 Missouri Botanical Garden http://www.illustratedgarden.org |
In Medieval Europe and England, solanaceous plants such as Datura were utilized for their mind-altering properties.14 It appears that in European and other native religions, witches and shamans originally held the sacred knowledge required to utilize these powerful plants safely. They were used in pagan rituals and as components of the infamous flying "green ointments" in witchcraft practices.5 A Renaissance record indicates that these applications were applied to the armpits and delicate mucous membranes of the vagina with a broomstick or like-shaped implement.15,16 Andres Laguna (1499-1560), a physician to Pope Julius III, investigated these controversial religious practices and showed that the green ointments containing Datura took the women on "journeys" by producing dream-like states, rather than on physical flights as was widely believed.17,18 Existing evidence suggests that during the Spanish Inquisition, use of Datura could lead to persecution for witchcraft and sorcery.6 The executioners of the Inquisition recorded numerous accounts of "journeys to the Sabbath" during which the accused "danced with the devil."10 The prosecution reportedly believed the accounts of the "witches" and subsequently may have condemned them to death on the basis of forced confession. But given that these accounts were usually obtained by severe torture, it is difficult to ascertain their veracity. It is now apparent that the experiences of "flying through the sky, dancing with the devil, and partaking in orgiastic feasts and rituals"6 were connected to tropane alkaloid-induced hallucinations.19,20
The growth of European monotheism, instigated by the Inquisition, resulted in the eradication of pagan beliefs and practices and the persecution of those who practised them.6 The Catholic Church condemned even the research on "natural magic," so that the likes of Giovan Battista Della Porta, who had worked with natural healers and recorded folklores, was threatened for recording these beliefs and practices. Witch-hunts during the Renaissance period further marginalized "folk" groups, leading to widespread persecution and an even greater skepticism towards solanaceous plants and their use.15
It is debatable whether some of the so-called pagan rituals of the medieval era were merely recreational, "diabolically" intended, or designed for some well-considered medical purpose. Piomelli and Pollio's account of Cardano and Della Porta's lamiarum unguentum seem to suggest that at least the inclusion of some excipients (e.g., soot) in this preparation, probably had an indirect pharmacological rationale.15 It has been observed that on topical application, tropane alkaloids are slowly absorbed through the skin and that absorption is enhanced by inducing inflammation, creating abrasions, or by using a substance that would create an alkaline environment. It seems therefore that the addition of the soot to the lamiarum unguentum produced the alkalinity needed for diffusion into the blood stream.15 The records also show that an aqueous extract of the toxic Aconitum spp. (family Ranunculaceae) was among the plant ingredients contained in the salve. Piomelli and Pollio15 suggest that the soot's alkalinity could have affected the hydrolytic cleavage of the toxic constituent aconitine to the less harmful derivative aconine, thereby reducing the potential toxicity of the salve.
Interestingly, the complexity of these preparations has been compared with the shamanic use of hallucinogens in Mesoamerica and the Amazon basin.14 It could be inferred that the intentions for use in this context were of a more complex magico-spiritual or even pharmacological nature. Most current reports, if they include any notes on preparation, describe ingestion of simple infusions or smoking and do not reflect the ethnobotanical sophistication of the "green ointments."
It is probable that Datura was used recreationally up to the witch-hunts of the 17th century at a time when alcohol was expensive.14 During the Middle Ages, the practice of combining Datura seeds with alcoholic drinks was popularized in Europe. In Catholic Bavaria, henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L., Solanaceae) was labeled a "crazy-making thing" and the practice of mixing it with beer was banned in 1507.21
The use of Datura in a modern context peaked in the 1960s and 70s with an upsurge in interest of pagan and shamanic practices.22 Linked with adolescents and the growth in "youth culture" during this period of social transformation, Datura and other psychotropics quickly became associated with rebelliousness and danger.23 There were several reports of its intoxicating effects24 and consequently Datura use became synonymous with negative terms such as "overdose" and "drug addicts."7>
Although the American National Drug Intelligence Center (ANDIC) recognized in the 1990s that there had been a dramatic increase in incidents of Datura exposure nationwide, encouraging awareness of its "dangers" was seen as key to preventing Datura from ever becoming a significant "threat."25
Attitudes outside Western Society
Datura was more revered in societies whose medical paradigm differed from the Western biomedical system in Europe. References to the sacred uses of Datura (specifically D. metel) exist in ancient records from Eurasia (e.g., China and India). For example, in India, the sadhus and yogis smoked the leaves and seeds mixed with ganja (Cannabis indica L., Cannabinaceae). The plant was highly revered as a powerful aphrodisiac.16,17 The Indians mixed the powdered seeds with butter and ingested it orally for impotence or applied it topically to invigorate the male genitalia. The leaves were also smoked to relieve asthma16 and were one of the primary ingredients in an anti-asthmatic product.
In China a Taoist legend refers to the plant as the flower of one of the pole stars. The Chinese customarily mixed Datura with cannabis and wine, and legend had it that if the person gathering the plant had a pleasant disposition at the time, this would be reflected in the behavior of all who drank from it, but if the gatherer had been sad, so would be all who drank the wine.13 Datura was also used to treat colds and nervous conditions.17
In parts of South America, Datura was taken as a tea or smoked to induce visions. Apart from its sacred significance, it was also regarded as one of the most ancient healing herbs. It is thought that the ancient Peruvian healers and shamans employed Datura's hallucinogenic properties when performing rituals or medical operations (e.g., skull trepanations—the process of cutting a hole in the skull).26 In what is present day Chile, the Auruks still use Datura as a shamanic plant and as medicine in much the same way as their ancestors. The leaves of the species D. ferox are brewed and given to unruly children to "teach the children a good measure of respect."12
Among the Chumash people of California, D. metel played an important role in their initiation rituals. To them Datura was the single most important medicinal plant and was taken in a ritualistic framework.27 According to Baker, reasons for taking Datura included, aiding the acquisition of "dream helpers," ascertaining the cause or cure of an illness, or gaining a specific skill, such as fishing. They used Datura to empower them to manipulate the "supernatural forces" that control nature and influence human activity. All young males and females of puberty age were given extracts of the root to invoke some form of spiritual protection throughout their earthly and non-earthly endeavours. A person experienced in Datura would be present during intoxication and would teach "moral values" in the period after inebriation.27 Similar accounts can be found from across South and Central America, including Diegueno shamanism, the Algonquin tribe of North America, and the Qichaus of Peru.13,28 The effects and the dosage were considered according to both pre-session preparation and environmental factors. As in many other tribes, Chumash preparations included abstinence from certain foods and sexual activity for up to 21 days before ingestion. The degree of adherence to these rules corresponded with the amount of power a person wanted to acquire.
The Chumash also used Datura as an anaesthetic for "bone setting," to treat wounds, bruises, and hemorrhoids, and to "freshen the blood." In some cases the plant was used to induce a quasi-comatose state in a person experiencing severe trauma, in the belief that the psychoactive properties of the plant would desensitize the pain receptors to reduce stress in the patient, thereby promoting speedy healing.27 Among the Navajo, the dried roots were chewed in ceremonies as a febrifuge (to stop fever), while a leaf infusion was used as a vulnerary (wound-healing agent) "to wash the wounds of castration in sheep."29 "Possession inebriation" began in Africa before being introduced to the Mediterranean and Indonesian islands. It "invaded" America with the slave trade and became known as voodoo, candomble, or mandinga. Datura was one of the main plants used to induce this kind of inebriation, causing raptures of "bodily frenzy" in which conscious awareness disappears.3>
Not only are these uses outside the realms of general understanding in Western society, they also incorporate a different attitude toward the plant itself. The long period of preparation before ingestion of the plant may be for physical protection or as a symbol of respect for the forces that were to be encountered (psychological preparation) or a combination of the two. Additionally, it is worthy of note that the participant was permitted the space and time to prepare; therefore the ritual did not isolate them from the social group. Communication took place between the participant and the group, suggesting a social "dialogue." In other words, the plant was used in these instances to achieve culturally desirable altered states of consciousness.
Neurotransmitters and Conscious Perception
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Jimson weed Datura stramonium L. from Plantarum selectarum icones pictae / editae a Nicolao Meerburg Volume 1 of 1 (originally published in 1798). ©1995-2006 Missouri Botanical Garden http://www.illustratedgarden.org |
Attempts have been made in recent years to explain a possible physical correlation between altered states of consciousness and activity in the central nervous system (CNS), specifically the brain.30 It is thought that different structures of the brain are associated with different levels of consciousness and that conscious perception occurs only when the associative cortex is active. This type of perception is involved with identity of self, in the planning of movement, orientation, and imagination.31,32 Consciousness gives a sense of reality to stimuli and hence if mechanisms that assemble this are disrupted, the notion of the self may be dissolved.33 This could be likened to the state that often occurs during dreaming.
Experience of consciousness is highly influenced by the combination of connections between the thalamus and the cortex, which are modulated at the relevant regions by neurotransmitters.31 Consequently, interference with the transmission of neurotransmitters across the synapses will affect the conscious experience of an individual.
One of the major neuromodulatory systems involved in relaying information between these important brain structures is the cholinergic system. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) has been postulated as a major correlate to consciousness; the cholinergic neural pathway, specifically from the basal forebrain to the cortex and thalamus, is thought to be an essential afferent regulatory system to the cerebral cortex.32
Tropane Alkaloids and Anticholinergic Activity
The tropane alkaloids present in Datura include atropine, hyoscyamine, and hyoscine (scopolamine). Research suggests that there is little difference in the quantities of these alkaloids found across species.34 Although hyoscyamine has been found to be the major alkaloid, with atropine and hyoscine being considerably less,34 the principal CNS effects are created by hyoscine, which can cross the blood brain barrier more efficiently.35
The tropane alkaloids are thought to act as competitive inhibitors of ACh via the muscarinic receptors at the autonomic ganglia and at the myoneural junction.23,36 During the 1970s, the action of scopolamine in reducing inhibitory impulses was investigated for use as a possible "truth drug."9,12 It is thought that solanaceous alkaloids trigger hallucinations through blocking cholinergic activity. ACh, an excitatory neurotransmitter, is widely distributed in the brain and is important for the sleep-wake-cycle.37 By blocking cholinergic activity, the alkaloids cause intrusions of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep into the waking state.32
It has been shown by electroencephalography (EEG) studies that humans have the potential to be consciously attending during REM sleep.32 Similar wave patterns to those of REM were recorded when brain activity was measured in 10 cases of Datura intoxication.18 EEG recordings immediately after hospitalization revealed slow wave activity and bizarre rhythmical bursts of high-voltage sharp wave activity in 6 of the 10 patients, indicating that Datura may lower the threshold for dream and hypnagogic (i.e., that state between being awake and falling asleep) imagery.18
Dreams have long been associated with elements of the unconscious mind.38,39 There are numerous reports in which people experiencing hallucination have gained great insight that may not have been attained otherwise. One such case was that of a 74-year-old male who became intoxicated after having received atropine sulphate for bradycardia (slow heart beat). He experienced visual hallucinations, which revealed detailed knowledge about an area of his field (business) which he claimed to have had no previous knowledge.19
Hallucinations in degenerative brain disorders are thought to be due to alterations in consciousness and are associated with regional deficits in the cholinergic system. Those occurring in some diseases, such as dementia with Lewy bodies, coupled with disturbances in REM sleep have been likened to experiences following solanaceous plant ingestion.32 (Lewy bodies disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by distinct loss of ability to process, learn, and remember information, with fluctuating confusion, visual hallucinations, fantasy, and significant parkinsonism.) Datura intoxication could therefore represent a useful model for understanding brain organization, memory, and emotional behavior.40
Hyoscine in the form of scopolamine hydrobromide in combination with morphine was formerly used to produce "twilight sleep" and amnesia in obstetrics, a practice which has since ceased because of the associated risk.9
A study that sought to investigate the visual eyes-closed hallucinations associated with the toxicity of another muscarinic ACh receptor, atropine, may provide an alternative hypothesis for the hallucinogenic effect of Datura. It was observed from the study that the visual eyes-closed hallucinations observed resembled hypnagogic hallucinations and may therefore originate in the brain stem.18
It is thought that there is a correlation between the number of receptor sites (and their affinity to the psychotropic substance) and the type of hallucination experienced by an individual as well as the idiosyncratic responses observed.32
Therapeutic Potential of Datura
In spite of its reputation as a witch's herb, Datura was commonly used for medicinal purposes even in Europe. Datura cigarettes have been prescribed to asthma sufferers for the anti-spasmodic/bronchodilating effect of atropine on the respiratory system.41
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