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| | From:  _vixedjuju_ (Original Message) | Sent: 6/6/2007 2:10 AM |
To understand ancient Egyptian society, archaeologists have many sources including tomb paintings, reliefs, and the objects included in tombs that the Egyptians used in their daily life. Artifacts from the few towns that have been excavated and hundreds of documents written by the ancient Egyptians shed additional light on their life. Much of the day-to-day running of their households, however, remains obscure. The nuclear family was the fundamental social unit of ancient Egypt. The father was responsible for the economic well-being of the family, and the mother supervised the household and cared for the upbringing of the children. Although Egyptian children had toys and are occasionally depicted at play, much of their time was spent preparing for adulthood. For example, peasant children accompanied their parents into the fields; the male offspring of craftsmen often served as apprentices to their fathers. Privileged children sometimes received formal education to become scribes or army officers.
Egyptian dress for men and women, rich or poor, changed very little over the centuries in Ancient Egypt. The clothing worn by men and women was made of linen which is made from flax, a plant having small leaves, blue flowers and stems about two feet tall, Half-ripe flax stems were pulled out of the ground and soaked for several days. The fibers were separated, and were beaten to soften.
These fibers were twisted into strong thread which were weaved on a loom. Linen needed constant washing. It was washed in the river or canal, rinsed, then pounded on a stone, and bleached in the sun. Linen clothes were very lightweight for the hot climate. All men, from the tomb worker to the pharaoh, wore a kind of kilt or apron that varied in length over the years, from halfway above the knee, to halfway below it, the dress was tied at the front, folded in at the side, or in two knots at the hips. A sleeved, shirt-like garment also became fashionable. Men were always clean-shaven, they used razors made from bronze to shave their beards and heads. Women wore straight, ankle-length dresses that usually had straps that tied at the neck or behind the shoulders. Some dresses had short sleeves or women wore short robes tied over their shoulders. Later costumes show that the linen was folded in many tiny vertical pleats and fringes were put at the edges. Wealthy people wore sandals made of leather that had straps across the instep and between the first and second toes.
They adorned themselves with as much jewelry as they could afford. Wealthy people wore broad collars made of gold and precious stones liked together, which fastened at the back of the neck. Pairs of bracelets were worn around the wrist or high on the arm, above the elbow. Rings and anklets were also worn. Women wore large round earrings and put bands around their heads or held their hair in place with ivory and metal hair pins, jewelry of ordinary people wore necklaces made of brightly colored pottery beads.
The Egyptians cared about their appearance a great deal. The women spent a lot of time bathing, rubbing oils and perfumes into their skin, and using their many cosmetic implements to apply make-up and style their wigs. Using a highly-polished bronze hand mirror, a woman would apply khol, a black dye kept in a jar or pot, to line her eyes and eyebrows, using an "brush" or "pencil" made of a reed. Men wore this eye make-up as well, which was not only a fashion but also protected against the eye infections which were common in Egypt. They would use a dye called henna to redden their nails and lips. Wigs were worn by men and women. A woman would place a cone made of fat soaked in sweet smelling ointment on her head, which slowly melted over her wig during a warm evening. Appearance indicated a persons status, role in a society or political significance. Egyptian hairstyles varied with age, gender and social status. Children head was shaved off or cut short except for a long lock of hair left on the side of the head, this s-shaped lock was depicted by the hieroglyphic symbol of a child or youth. Both girls and boys wore this style until the onset of puberty. Older boys often shaved their heads, while girls had ponytails hanging down the center of the back Egyptian men had short hair, leaving their ears visible. Another hairstyle for men was distinctive short curls covering the ears shaping a bend from temple to nape. Women's hairstyles were more unique than those of men. Women generally preferred a smooth, close coiffure, a natural wave and long curl. Women in the Old Kingdom preferred to have short cuts or chin length bobs. However in the New Kingdom they had long hair or touted a wig. Women tied and decorated their head with flowers and linen ribbons. A stylized golden lotus blossom was the preferred adornment , poor people used more simple and inexpensive ornaments of petals and berries. Children decorated their heads with amulets of small fish to protect from the dangers of the Nile. Children sometimes used rings or clasps, ancient Egyptians wore headbands around their heads or held their hair in place with ivory and metal hairpins. Wigs were very popular and worn by men, women and children. They were adorned both inside and outside of the house. Egyptians put on a new wig each day and wigs were greatly varied in styles. The primary function of the wig was as a headdress for special occasions, such as ceremonies and banquets. Wigs were curled or sometimes made with a succession of plaits. Only queens or noble ladies could wear wigs of long hair separated into three parts, the so-called goddress.
Egyptians were very secure in that the Nile valley always yielded enough crops to feed the country, even when famine was present in other nearby parts of the world. The basic food and drink was bread and beer, were made from the main crops they grew, wheat and barely, wheat was the most important crop in ancient Egypt, it was used to make many types of bread, including pastries and cakes. The corn was often stored in communal granaries. Important field crops were sesame, beans and chickpeas, lettuce, onions, leeks, dill, grapes, melons and gourds Beer was made from barely, and was the main drink for common people in every day life. Since there was no sugar, honey was used as a sweetener by the rich, and poor people used dates and fruit juices. Egyptians liked strong-tasting vegetables such as garlic and onions. They thought these were good for the health. They also ate pea crops and beans, lettuce, cucumbers, and leeks. Vegetables were often served with an oil and vinegar dressing. Figs, dates, pomegranates and grapes were the only fruits that could be grown in the hot climate. Ordinary people ate fish and poultry. On special occasions they ate sheep, goat, or pig; but there was little grazing land available so meat was expensive and most people ate it only on festive occasions. Egyptians stored their food in jars and granaries. Fish and meat had to be especially prepared for storage. One method was salting. Another was to hang up the fish in the sun, which baked them dry. They had ovens, and knew how to boil roast, and fry food. There were few kitchen tools: pestles, mortars, and sieves.
Wine has an extensive history in Egypt. By the third millenium BC, kings of the first dynasty had extensive cellars. Egyptians produced several different kinds, the Old Kingdom favored red wine, white was only produced from the Middle Kingdom onwards. The vineyards of ancient Egypt were different from the modern methods. Grapes were hand picked, then placed in a vat for traditional treading on the grapes, or in special presses adding heat to the must in order to make the wine sweet. The resultant juice was poured through a cloth filter, and then into earthenware jars, where they would be sealed with natural tar and left to ferment.. When ready, these jugs were sealed and marked with the date, name of the vineyard and the person in charge of the wine. When served, it was poured into shallow vessels with a short stem. The Egyptians kept accurate records of their vintages, and quality of their wines, each jar was clearly labeled with it's own vintage, and quality. Wine was very expensive to drink. The main consumption took place as an offering to the gods and dead, as well as between the king, nobles, and the priests in temple ceremonies and party banquets, in party scenes on the tomb walls, there are a number of images depicting the guests throwing up or being carried home because of their drunken state, drunkenness was seen as an amusement to the ancient Egyptians. The temples associated with the goddesses had their own vineyards to make sure that the celebrants had enough wine for the rituals. Hathor was the goddess of wine and beer, as well as goddess of love and destruction.
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The Egyptians held marriage as a sacred bond. This has been made clear in the many statues and writings that depict men and women in a relationship where both depended upon each other. The basic family unit in Egypt was the nuclear family. For all that religion played in ancient Egyptian life, there was one place it had no role at all was marriage. A bride would be young, about 15 years old. Her groom could be anywhere from 17 to 20—or older if he was divorced or a widower. The Egyptians were encouraged to marry young, considering that the life span at this time was relatively short. Matrimony was arranged with parental consent, as in all societies, especially among the upper classes. But the abundance of love poetry between young people signifies that many couples did fall in love and choose each other as mates. Women played a large role in arranging a marriage. A suitor sometimes used a female go-between to approach the girl’s mother—not her father. Interestingly, one of the most affectionate titles you could call your love was brother or sister. This had nothing to do with sibling relations, but led many archaeologists and scholars to wrongly assume that most ancient Egyptians married their siblings. Actually, this occurred rarely only among royalty. Museums are filled with statues and paintings showing grooms and brides with their arms around each other’s waists, holding hands or offering each other flowers or food. Love and affection was an important part of the Egyptian couple, and our Egyptian bride could expect to be loved and respected by her groom. The matrimony contract wasn’t necessary, but most had a contract drawn up between the parties. The poorer classes probably did not do this because they probably had few possessions to consider and also the cost of a scribe would have been prohibitive. Settlements were drawn up between a woman’s father and her prospective husband, although many times the woman herself was part of the contract. The sole purpose of the contract was to establish the rights of both parties to maintenance and possessions during the marriage and after divorce if it should occur. What is really fascinating is the equality wives held with men in their rights to own, manage and receive property. If the matrimony ended in divorce, the rights of the wife were equally protected. Generally, she was entitled to support from her husband, especially if she was rejected by him through no fault of her own. The amount might equal one third of the settlement or even more. If the bride ended up committing adultery, she still had certain rights to maintenance from her former man. Monogamy, except for some of the higher classes and royalty, seemed to be the rule for most couples. A standard contract would contain: The date, the year of the reign of the ruling monarch, The contractors future husband and wife, The names of both sets of parents husband’s profession The scribe who drew up the contract The names of the witnesses Then the details of the settlement. Here is an example of a contract from 219 BC: "The Blemmyann, born in Egypt, son of Horpais, whose mother is Wenis, has said to the woman Tais, daughter of the Khahor, whose mother is Tairerdjeret: I have made you a married woman. As your woman’s portion, I give you two pieces of silver…If I dismiss you as wife and dislike you and prefer another woman to you as wife, I will give you two pieces of silver in addition to the two pieces of silver mentioned above�?and I will give you one third of each and everything that will accrue to you and me. One of the expectations of the ancient Egyptian family was the bringing forth of children. Sometimes there would be a trial marriage for a year to see if pregnancy would occur. This was all stipulated in the contract. In some parts of ancient Egyptian society, men were permitted to have concubines. Naturally, it worked out better for the husband if his bride approved. But concubines did not have the same protective status as wives, adultery even in households where there were concubines, was strongly discouraged. The day of the matrimony was really quite simple. The bride moved her belongings into the home of her husband. He might be living alone or with his parents. The bride wore a long dress or tunic made of linen, which covered her from head to toe with bead-net. If she owned any gold, silver or lapis, she adorned herself with those. Even though there was no official ceremony, knowing how much the ancient Egyptians loved music, dance and food, there were bound to be family celebrations in honor of the uniting couple. Divorce could be brought about by either party; it was a private matter and the government took no interest in it. The most common reasons for a man to divorce his wife included the inability to bear children, especially a son; the desire to marry someone else, or that she simply stopped pleasing him. A woman could divorce her husband for mental or physical cruelty or adultery. In some cases, if the woman chose to divorce, she forfeited her right to communal property. Once divorced, both men and women could remarry as soon as they wished. It’s apparent that our ancient bride, with the ease of marriage and divorce and the financial protection she generally received, had a better time than some brides in modern times.
In ancient Egypt there were definite social classes which were dictated by an Egyptian's profession. This social stratification is like a pyramid. At the bottom of the classes were soldiers, farmers, and tomb builders, who represented the greatest percent of the Egyptian population. The workers supported the professionals above them, just as the base of the pyramid supports the rest of the structure. Above the workers were skilled craftsmen, such as artists. Above the craftsmen were the scribes. The scribes were the only Egyptians who knew how to read and write, and therefore had many types of job opportunity and a good social status. A scribe's duties ranged from writing letters for townspeople, to recording harvests, to keeping accounts for the Egyptian army. Above these scribes were more scholarly scribes, who had advanced to higher positions such as priests, doctors, and engineers. Priests were devoted to their religious duties in the temples at least three months out of every year, during which time they never left the temple. At other times the worked as judges and teachers. The medical profession of Ancient Egypt had its own hierarchy. At the top was the chief medical officer of Egypt. Under him were the superintendents and inspectors of physicians, and beneath then were the physicians. Egyptian doctors were very advanced in their knowledge of herbal remedies and surgical techniques. Also part of Egyptian medicine were magic, charms, and spells, which had only psychological effects, if any, on a patient. Engineers, with their mathematical and architectural knowledge, were responsible for the planning and building of the monuments, temples, and pyramids of ancient Egypt. The architects were not the actual builders, instead they were in charge of the branch of government involved. Then men who did calculations, drew up the plans, surveyed the sites, and supervised the work day were scribes. Above the priests, doctors, and engineers were the high priests and noblemen whom the pharaoh appointed as his assistants, generals, and administrators, who together formed the government. The vizier was the Pharoah's closest advisor. Finally, at the top of the social status pyramid was the Pharaoh. The Pharoah of Egypt was not simply a king and a ruler, but was was considered a god on earth.
Egypt's society was typically male-dominated. The word of the man of the house was law, and a wife was in many ways her husband's servant. For a long time it was thought that the Egyptian man would take many wives, this has been proven largely untrue. Some kings would take many wives in order to produce an heir to his throne, however, the common man would take more then one wife only in the event that his wife couldn’t produce a child. On the other hand, Egyptian women enjoyed far more rights and privileges than in other lands, modern as well as ancient. Relieves and pictures show the important role of housewives and that Egyptian husbands were aware that it took two for a marriage. In smaller households the wife was in charge of all things pertaining to the house, cooking, cleaning and watching the children were all her responsibilities. In some larger homes servants served as maids and midwives to help the mother. Entertaining, sports, and even casual passing of time were for men only. In ancient Egypt, husband and wife chatted together, listened to music together, and threw parties together. A wife went along on her husband's hunting forays to keep him company. Egyptian women shared with men important legal rights that in many other nations were totally denied them. They were allowed to own land, operate businesses, testify in court, and bring actions against men. Egyptian women enjoyed a dimension of freedom greater than any of their counterparts from other places in ancient times.
Egyptian Life
Daily life in ancient Egypt revolved around the Nile and the fertile land along its banks. The yearly flooding of the Nile enriched the soil and brought good harvests and wealth to the land.
The people of ancient Egypt built mudbrick homes in villages and in the country. They grew some of their own food and traded in the villages for the food and goods they could not produce.
Most ancient Egyptians worked as field hands, farmers, craftsmen and scribes. A small group of people were nobles. Together, these different groups of people made up the population of ancient Egypt.
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A nobleman's family
One bright morning in ancient Egypt, a nobleman woke up in a bed covered in fine linen sheets. He opened his eyes and looked around his bedroom. He saw the cabinet where his clothes were kept, his wife's cosmetic box, and a lamp for lighting the room in the evening.
His thoughts were disturbed by the servant who entered the room. The servant helped him to wash and shave.
Then, the nobleman dressed in a kilt made of fine linen and sandals made of leather.
Meanwhile, the nobleman's wife got up. She washed and dressed with the help of another servant. The nobleman's wife wore a dress made of fine linen and jewellery made of glass.
She applied some kohl to her eyelids and went downstairs.
The nobleman and his wife had a small meal of bread and fruit. They sat on cushions and ate from a low table.
Then, the nobleman left the house for an appointment with the overseer of his lands
The nobleman's wife supervised the preparations for the banquet they were hosting that evening. Her children were dressed and fed, then brought to her by a servant.
The overseer of the nobleman's fields told the nobleman what the harvest would be like for the year. He also told the nobleman how many cattle and geese had been counted in the fields the day before. The nobleman was pleased. They shared a meal of bread, meat and beer.
In the early afternoon the nobleman's wife went out into the garden to escape the heat of the day.
She enjoyed the shade of the trees while she watched her children play with their toys.
Later in the afternoon the nobleman's wife began preparing for the evening banquet. Her servant brushed and curled her favourite wig.
She took out her most beautiful clothing and her jewellery made of gold and semi-precious stones.
The nobleman returned to the house and got ready for the banquet. Then he and his wife began greeting their guests as they arrived.
Their guests were offered cones of perfumed wax and lotus flowers by servant girls. They ate the finest meats, breads, cakes, wine, figs and dates. They were entertained by musicians and dancing girls.
At the end of the evening, they said goodnight to their guests and went to bed.
Ancient Egyptian Sexuality
by Caroline Seawright
Ancient Egyptian Sexuality
...Revel in pleasure while your life endures
And deck your head with myrrh. Be richly clad
In white and perfumed linen; like the gods
Anointed be; and never weary grow
In eager quest of what your heard desires -
Do as it prompts you... -- Lay of the Harpist Sexuality in ancient Egypt was open, untainted by guilt. Sex was an important part of life - from birth to death and rebirth. Singles and married couples made love. The gods themselves were earthy enough to copulate. The Egyptians even believed in sex in the afterlife. Sex was not taboo... Even the Egyptian religion was filled with tales of adultery, incest, homosexuality and masturbation... with hints of necrophillia! Masculinity and femininity itself were strongly linked with the ability to conceive and bear children... Marriage To the ancient Egyptians, the most attractive women tended to be the fertile ones. A women who had children was seen to be more fortunate than ones without. Taking after Isis, the mother goddess of Horus, Egyptian women strove to be intelligent, wise, mystical and mothers. Where her twin sister Nephthys was barren, Isis was fertile. In the Egyptian community, men had to prove their masculinity by fathering children, while the women had to be able to bear these sons and daughters. Being a mother meant being able to keep her marriage secure and to gain a better position in society. But an Egyptian family was not just a status symbol - the Egyptians loved their children and were not afraid to show it. But there were some advice to parents, written by scribes: Do not prefer one of your children above the others; after all, you never know which one of them will be kind to you. Adultery in Egypt was wrong. Women got the worst punishment for adultery - a man might just be forced into a divorce, but a women could conceivably be killed for that crime. In the Tale of Two Brothers, the adulterous wife was found out, murdered and her body was thrown to the dogs. Unmarried women, on the other hand, seem to be free to choose partners as they so desire, and enjoy their love life to its fullest. Itinerant Performers and 'Prostitutes' The Egyptian sacred 'prostitute' (who was probably a highly regarded as a member of Egyptian society because of her association with different gods or goddesses (such as Bes and Hathor), rather than the street walker that the modern mind imagines) advertised herself through her clothing and make up. Some of these women wore blue faience beaded fish-net dresses. They painted their lips red, and tattooed themselves on the breasts or thighs and even went around totally nude. There is no evidence that these women were paid for these fertility-related acts, so some believe that word 'prostitute' is probably an incorrect term for these women.
Photo taken with kind permission of the Petrie Museum, London
Another idea, pointed out to me by Daniel Kolos, an Egyptologist academically trained at the University of Toronto, is that this premarital sexual activity might be a prerequisite for marriage. One of the theories that disassociates these women from being prostitutes, is that their sexual activity could be part of a "coming-of-age ritual", just as circumcision was one for males. With Egypt's heavy emphasis on fertility as the defining nature of a man or a woman, this idea is a highly likely probability.
Other theories could be that the young virgin girls joined itinerant performing groups - dancers, singers and the like - and during their time with these groups they experienced their first sexual encounters. If a girl became pregnant, she would probably leave the troupe to head home to her family with proof of her fertility. (Motherhood was venerated, giving a woman a much higher status in society, so pregnancy was something to be proud of in ancient Egypt.) These travelling groups of women were strongly linked with midwifery and childbirth-related deities. The goddesses Isis, Nephthys, Meskhenet and Heqet disguised themselves as itinerant performers, travelling with the god Khnum as their porter. Carrying the sistrum and menat instruments - instruments with sexual overtones - they showed it to Rawoser, the expectant father. Knowing that his wife, Raddjedet, was having a very difficult labour, he told these women - the disguised goddesses - about his wife's troubles, and at their offer of help, he let them in to see her. These women do not seem to be pay-for-sex prostitutes, instead they seem to be a link with the divine, a helper of expectant mothers and singers, dancers and musicians. This is not to say that there were no pay-for-sex prostitutes in ancient Egypt, it it just that there is little evidence of this found. Considering Egypt's very different image of sexuality, the modern concept of both sexuality and prostitution do not fit this ancient society. Women operated under a totally different cultural imperative than women today, thus ancient Egyptian sexuality must be looked at without modern prejudices. It seems that these female performers, these 'prostitutes', were treated with courtesy and respect, and there seemed to be a well established link between these travelling performers and fertility, childbirth, religion and magic. Contraception The Egyptians had their own ways and means of getting around the fact that sex produced children. They had both contraceptives and abortions, mostly these were prescriptions that were filled with unpleasant ingredients such as crocodile dung. Here is one of the nicer ones: Prescription to make a woman cease to become pregnant for one, two or three years: Grind together finely a measure of acacia dates with some honey. Moisten seed-wool with the mixture and insert it in the vagina.
-- Ebers Medical Papyrus
Incest From the close family relationships in Egyptian mythology and the fact that Egyptians seemed to have no taboo against incest, many have concluded that incest was rife in ancient Egypt. There were probably some brother and sister marriages, but more likely than not, the siblings in question would have been half-brothers and half-sisters. The problem arises from the limited Egyptian terms of kinship, which are very confusing. A 'father' could refer to the actual father, the grandfather or male ancestors, while 'mother' could be the same, but for the females of the family. 'Sister' could mean a lover, a wife, a mistress or concubine, niece or aunt! The royal family, on the other hand, did have more incestuous marriages. The royal blood ran through the females, not the males. To become pharaoh, a man had to marry a royal princess... which would be his sister or half-sister. The prevalence of brother-sister marriages within the New Kingdom royal family, a custom in obvious contrast to contemporary non-royal marriage patters, appears to have been an attempt to reinforce the links between the royal family and the gods who themselves frequently indulged in brother-sister unions. Ra Even the gods had sex in ancient Egypt. Ra (in the form of Atem) masturbated his children Shu and Tefnut into existence! Atem is he who masturbated in Iunu (On, Heliopolis). He took his phallus in his grasp that he might create orgasm by means of it, and so were born the twins Shu and Tefnut. -- Pyramid Text 1248-49 Nut and Geb Nut, the goddess of the night sky, and her brother Geb, the god of the earth, were originally thought to be in a constant state of love making. Ra grew angry with his grandchildren, and commanded their father Shu to separate the two lovers. The god of the air took his place, and trampled on the ithyphallic Geb, and lifted Nut high into the air. Nut was found to be pregnant, and was then cursed by Ra - she would never be able to bear her children on any month of the 360 day year. Thoth managed to win a game against Khonsu, god of the moon, and used some of the light of the moon to create five extra days (making the year 365 days). During those days Nut gave birth to her five children - Isis, Osiris, Nephthys, Set and Horus the Elder (not to be confused with Horus, the child of Isis and Osiris). Nephthys and Osiris Some tales of sex and the Egyptian gods is on the seamier side - one of the reasons given as to why Set and Osiris hate each other was because of Nephthys, Set's sister-wife. She was barren (she represented the desert, as did Set), and she hit on the plan of disguising herself as Isis and seducing Osiris. Getting Osiris drunk, Nephthys took Osiris to her bed, and the two had drunken sex together. Osiris dropped his garland of melilot flowers in the act of passion. Set found the adulterous goddess and the flowers, and knowing who the flowers belonged to, he began to plan Osiris' death. The child of this union was thought to be Anubis, god of mummification. Now as the overflowings of the Nile are sometimes very great, and extend to the boundaries of the land, this gave rise to the story of the secret intercourse between Osiris and Nephthys, as the natural consequence of so great an inundation would be the springing up of plants in those parts of the country which were formerly barren. Isis and Osiris After his first attempt, Set managed to kill Osiris again and cut up his body into numerous parts. These parts Set spread all over Egypt. Isis, Nephthys and Anubis searched Egypt, and managed to retrieve all of the pieces of the body, except one - Osiris' phallus. Set had dropped the penis into the Nile (making it fertile), where it was eaten by a fish. The god and goddesses pieced Osiris together and created the first mummy. Using her magic, Isis fashioned a replacement for Osiris' missing part, either out of clay, wood or gold, and attached this to her dead husband's body. Through magical spells, life was breathed back into Osiris' body (though some dispute this and believe that Osiris was dead at the time)... The goddess managed to share a time of passion with her husband who impregnating her with their child, Horus. Osiris then passed into the afterlife, becoming god of the dead. Horus and Set Then Set said to Horus: "Come, let us have a feast day at my house." And Horus said to him: "I will, I will." Now when evening had come, a bed was prepared for them, and they lay down together. At night, Set let his member become stuff, and he inserted it between the thighs of Horus. And Horus placed his hand between his thighs and caught the semen of Set. -- Story of Horus and Set After Osiris' eventual death, while Horus was growing up and planning his own revenge, Set and Horus engaged in a homosexual relationship. In one part of the myth, Set proclaimed to Horus, "How lovely your backside is." Informing his mother Isis about his uncle's ardour, Horus is told to catch Set's semen rather than becoming impregnated by the murderer of his father. Set, in doing so, was planning on humiliating Horus by showing the gods that Horus would be filled with someone else's semen. Horus and Isis's next plan was to 'impregnate' Set with Horus' semen. His mother spreads powerful unguents on Horus' penis, after which he ejaculated into a jar, and they spread it on some lettuce, a favourite aphrodisiac to the ancient Egyptians. Set then ate the semen-covered lettuce, and so Horus (rather than Set with his first 'attack') became sexually dominant over his uncle. Set then asked the gods to bring the semen forth from the 'impregnated' one, to humiliate Osiris' son. The semen comes out of Set himself, and he becomes the laughing stock of the gods! Hapi The Egyptian god if the Nile, Hapi, was a masculine deity, given female properties because of the fertility of the Nile river. Without the Nile, there would be no Egypt. Due to the duality of Egyptian thought, there were two Hapi gods - one of Upper Egypt wearing the water lily (lotus) on his head, and one of Lower Egypt wearing papyrus. He was usually depicted as a blue or green coloured man with a protuding belly, carrying libation jugs. He also has full breasts, indicating his ability to nourish Egypt. Despite being a hermaphrodite god, both the northern and southern versions of Hapi were given wives - Nekhbet in Upper Egypt and Wadjet in Lower Egypt. Min Lettuce was thought to be the favourite food of the fertility god, Min He was depicted as a god with an erect penis, wearing a feathered crown and carrying a flail. Lettuce was his sacred plant, and an aphrodisiac to the ancient Egyptians - this particular species of lettuce was tall, straight and secreted a milky substance when pressed! Another aphrodisiac was the onion. They were forbidden to the priests who had vowed celibacy, for fear that their passion might take over, and that they might desecrate themselves! Fennel, ginger, pomegranates, coriander in wine and radishes mixed with honey were thought to have aphrodisiac qualities, too. The water lily was also a symbol of sexuality, as well as immortality and health. It was possibly even a narcotic that the Egyptians used, but it was more likely to be a sexual stimulant. Some of the more unusual aphrodisiacs included pearls dissolved in a cup of wine, baboon faeces added to aphrodisiac ointments! Artwork The Turin Papyrus contains various pictures of sexual activity, perhaps focused on Ramses II and his many wives. It has been theorised that, more likely, it is just the fantasies of an ancient Egyptian who happened to sketch them out on papyrus, or an artwork poking fun at the sexual side of the Egyptian lifestyle. Most of the positions drawn on this papyrus seem to be rather uncomfortable! Another sexual sketch - this time graffiti - from ancient Egypt shows a woman with a pharaoh's crown, maybe Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BC) engaging in sex with a male that many presume to be Senmut. This sketch has caused many people to believe that Hatshepsut and her favourite courtier were lovers. From various sources, it seems that the Egyptian preferred method of intercourse were face-to-face or from behind. References in writing to sexual intercourse between men are as rare as those to sexual intercourse between men and women; the absence of references in writing to sexual intercourse between women reflects the general male bias of the written record. Homosexual intercourse between a king and his general is implied in the fragmentary 'Tale of Neferkara and Sasenet', in the description of secret nocturnal visits by the king to the general, detected by the hero of the tale; although the tale is damaged, it reads as if the nocturnal visits are considered illicit. -- Sexuality in ancient Egypt, Digital Egypt for Universities After Life The Egyptians thought of their afterlives as more of a continuation of life on earth (albeit a better life). This being the case, the Egyptians believed in sex life after death! Egyptian men had false penises attached to their mummies while Egyptian women had artificial nipples attached. Both would become fully functional in the afterlife, where they were free to engage in sexual intercourse, if they so desired. There were even fertility dolls in many graves - women with wide, child-bearing hips that were often carrying children in their arms. Other fertility dolls, known as paddle dolls, don't have any legs, and their bodies end in very wide pubic area, with tiny heads and arms. These dolls show that the Egyptians believed that fertility and sex were interlinked, though the ancient Egyptians quite clearly enjoyed sex in its own right!
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The role of the Magicican in Egyptian society
the magician was an esteemed and influential member of Egyptian society, exercising authority over his art and those who needed his assistance, by means of powerful words and actions In a Late Period monument, the Metternich Stela (c.350 BC), there appears the following declaration from Isis, the goddess of magic: 'I am Isis the goddess, the possessor of magic, who performs magic, effective of speech, excellent of words.�?This statement gives us the best definition of the nature of Egyptian magical practice: inherent possession, spells and magical techniques/formulae. In this article we will deal with the first of these three characteristics, the inherent possession of magic that refers to the power, ability and status of the magician in Egyptian society In the early third century AD Clement of Alexandria regarded Egypt as 'the mother of the magicians.' To what extent, however, did that reflect a particular cast of private performers of the magical act, according to our Western point of view? There seems to be no common word for 'magician' in the ancient Egyptian language and, thus, a strict differentiation between magicians, priests and medical healers in Egyptian society appears rather impractical Egypt: 'mother' of the magicians
There are, however, quite a few stories referring to the lives and acts of certain individuals that have been ascribed with the knowledge and possession of hidden and powerful magical abilities. The most notable example of such stories, the so-called Setna-saga, survives in written records dated between the second century BC and the second century AD. It refers to prince Khaemwaset, the fourth son of the Pharaoh Ramesses II (c. 1279-1213 BC). Khaemwaset became first setm-priest and then 'high priest' of the god Ptah at Memphis and he was responsible for the construction of the Serapeum, a massive tomb in the sacred area of Saqqara, and the restoration of pyramids and funerary temples in the vast area of Memphis. Khaemwaset appears in these Late Period Setna-stories, named after his priestly title, as a performer of magic who knew how to use the power of amulets and talismans and how to compose magical formulae, so that he managed to prevent a Nubian magician and ruler casting spells upon, and gaining control over, Egypt. In the same story, Khaemwaset is also described as a 'good scribe and very wise man,' who was trained to understand and write the 'language of the gods,' the hieroglyphs. So, the magician in the Setna-story could combine the functions of a priest, scribe and performer of magical acts.
Similarly, in another story cycle preserved in the Papyrus Westcar, a magician transformed a wax crocodile into a real one and used it to hunt down his wife's lover. Another magician from the same story parted the water of a lake to recover a dropped pendant
These magicians were 'chief lector-priests' (hery-heb), high in rank in the Egyptian priesthood. They were responsible for the keeping of the sacred books and ritual manuscripts in the sacred scriptorium, known as the 'House of Life' (per-ankh), about which we shall talk later. They were mostly involved with the magical rituals performed inside the temple precinct, rather than the common daily cultic rituals. They were regarded as the intermediate link between the sacred world of the temple and the outside world because they were allowed to use their knowledge to officiate at funerals.' In execration rituals, the chief lector priest is accompanied by the 'fighter' priest (ahAw-a), and it is to these functionaries that are addressed the ritual incantations in the second person found in papyri and on the temple walls. Thus, in the rubrics of the Late Period magical papyrus Bremner-Rhind, which were addressed against the serpentine demon Apophis, the enemy of the sun god par excellence, the chief lector priest gives directions to the fighter priest of how to make wax images of the snake and every enemy of the gods and the pharaoh and destroy them.' A lector-priest could also be capable of performing medical treatments and curing various illnesses Closely associated with medicine and practical healing was another group of priests/magicians, the priests of the goddess Sekhmet. Sekhmet was regarded as the one 'great of magic' and together with the god Ptah and her son Nefertem made up the Memphite triad. According to Egyptian mythology, Sekhmet was connected with the uraeus of the Pharaoh and thus became the 'eye of Re', accompanying the king to battle, protecting him from his enemies and curing his injuries. The priests who were under her service were specialised in medicine and could combine medical treatment and natural remedies with magical and sacerdotal methods. The magician's 'tools of the trade'
Thus, the direct priestly affiliation of magicians is highly significant, and strongly suggests that itinerant magicians did not exist in Ancient Egypt. The best evidence of the profession of magician/priest derives from the discovery of a Middle Kingdom magician's box beneath the storerooms at the Ramesseum.' It contained twenty-three fragmentary papyri with magico-religious contexts, four broken ivory 'apotropaic knives,' amulets, various beads and figurines, including four female dolls, a statuette of the hybrid goddess Beset holding snakes, a bronze uraeus and an ivory herdsman carrying a calf. The amulets were used for protective purpose, while the apotropaic wands repelled evil and protected infants from demons The wax figurines were used in execration rituals, about which we shall talk in detail in a future article. They were spat upon, pierced with a knife and burned, symbolising thus the ritual 'death' of the enemy. The magical significance of the ivory herdsman becomes apparent when it is compared with the identical representation in fording scenes in the Old Kingdom tombs. In such scenes the herdsman carries a calf into the water to induce the cattle to follow. The fording scenes are usually accompanied by the recitation of a protective spell against crocodiles or other dangerous creatures that usually lie in the river. Those spells were recited by magicians, who accompany the herdsman on the boat. They were called 'those who know sacred things' (rkh-kht), a term that reveals their priestly affiliation and their attachment to the sacred temple institute, which was known as the 'House of Life' The House of Life
In the Setna-story, we saw above, the magical acts are described as the 'deeds of a good scribe of the House of Life (pr-ankh)'. The 'House of Life' was a sacred institution attached to all the major temples Although there is not any solid archaeological evidence for its existence, many texts describe its functions and the religious writings it contained. A symbolic representation of the House of Life is depicted in a Late Period document, Papyrus Salt 825, that also contains a ritual for the protection of the 'House of Life.' It is shown as a courtyard that encloses the figure of Osiris, standing within a mummy case and looking toward the ankh-hieroglyphic sign in the top right-hand corner of the inner court. A rectangular wall pierced by four gates surrounds the court, while hieroglyphic signs with apotropaic meaning were drawn inside it. The four corners of the wall were protected by the deities Isis, Nepthys, Horus and Thoth. This sacred institute was initially created for the magical protection of the gods (Re, Osiris) and the Pharaoh, who was regarded as their representative on earth. It had, also, acquired the role of the temple library, where all the sacred books (mdat ntr), writings and cultic archives were kept.' Sixteen books, which were property of the House of Life in the temple of Osiris at Abydos, have been recorded in Papyrus Salt 825 All of them are characterised by their significant apotropaic capacities: 'As for the books which are in it, they are the baw of Re, keeping alive this god (scil. Osiris), and overthrow his enemies." As for the people who enter into it, 'they are the staff of Re and the scribes of the House of Life, the followers of Re protecting his son Osiris every day.' The priests were responsible for the preservation of these books and their regular transmission. In an important relief relating to the sed-festival at Bubastis, a procession of long-skirted priests, most of whom hold papyrus rolls, is headed 'friends and masters of magic.' Among the separate personages are two Hkaw-Smsw 'magician-protectors of the King of Lower Egypt,' one 'royal scribe' (ss-ntr) and a group of people, called as 'the company of the House of Life,' synonym to the latter 'staff of the House of Life.' In a Thirtieth Dynasty fine statue from the Louvre, the 'chief-lector-priest' Nakhtharhab is recognised as the 'leader of the masters of magic (Hryw Hkat) in the House of Life.�?/FONT> The magician as god
The exceptional and superior position of the magicians/priests in Egyptian society was due not only to their training and spiritual capabilities but, mainly, to their power to come in contact and control the spiritual realm of the divine entities. During the course of a magical ceremony, a special relationship is developed between the magician and the invoked deities. The phrase 'I am the god N,' which appears very often in magical spells, consists of a very important magical technique that assimilates and equates the human (magician) and the superhuman (deity) being The magician believes that he is not merely the medium for the divine power to be expressed through, but an independent entity who retains the will and freedom to use and distribute this power according to his desire. Thus, for example, in an incantation from a Nineteenth Dynasty ostracon from Deir el-Medineh, which is directed against a human enemy, the magician 'transforms' himself into a certain god Montu, threatening his foe 'I will say: "Come to me Montu, lord of the day! Come, that you may put N born of N into my hand like an insect in the mouth of a bird". I am Montu whom the gods adore. I will sever your bones and eat your flesh.�?/FONT> Similarly, in the Spell X from the Metternich Stela, which consists of a conjuration in favour of a man that has been bitten by a snake's bite, the magician starts the spell speaking as the god Thoth, who invokes the magic of Horus, and completes the rite having been assimilated with the invoked god 'An adoration of Horus to glorify him. Recitation on the water and on the land. Recitation by Thoth, the saviour of this god ... I have recited with your magic (HkA) and I have spoken with your spells (Akhw) and I have exorcised with your words ... May you drive away for me all the lions in the desert, all the crocodiles in the river, all the biting snakes in their holes/ ... May you remove for me the pulsating poison which is in all the limbs ... Your name is invoked on this day: "I am Horus the saviour". ' Either using imperative ('come!'), as in the first example, or perspective form ('may you remove...'), the magician praises the divine magical abilities and power, that helps him to execute the ritual, and reaches the divine state through the authoritative and effecting utterance of the spoken words. The sound was the essential 'bridge' that linked the magician with the mundane and invisible world and enabled him to have access and power over it.' The magician not only impersonates and expresses the will of the supernatural powers, by making himself a 'channel,' a medium, through which these powers can be visualised in the human sphere, but also he 'transforms' himself into god: 'For I am among gods: Seth is on my right, Horus on my left, Nephthys is in my embrace, o gods! Make way for me! I am one of you!'" This divine transformation is without hybris, according to the Greek notion of arrogant behaviour and action, but in complete orthodoxy with the primeval power and superiority of the Egyptian magic So, magicians lived in direct contact with the gods, while, at the same time, they occupied the most important positions in the political and social order. Since Egyptian society was regarded as theocentric, it was the magicians' duty to keep it in harmony with the gods, establishing and maintaining Ma'at.
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Home work Exercises Lesson 7
Egyptian Society
1) Write a short essay on the workings of Egyptian Society as you understand it. Include the importance of family roles, marriage, social classes, sexuality and magic.
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