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Book of the Dead Book of the Dead, term used to describe Egyptian funerary literature. The texts consist of charms, spells, and formulas for use by the deceased in the afterworld and contain many of the basic ideas of Egyptian religion. At first inscribed on the stone sarcophagi, the texts were later written on papyrus and placed inside the mummy case. The earliest collection, known as the Heliopolitan Recension, dates from the XVIII dynasty (1580�?350 B.C.). It also contains selections from the two previous collections of Egyptian religious literature—the Coffin Texts of the Middle Kingdom (c.2000 B.C.) and the Pyramid Texts of the Old Kingdom (c.2600�?300 B.C.). The Theban Recension, a text that may be contemporary or slightly later, has a distinctive format. There are several noteworthy papyruses, valuable for their art. Among them are the Papyrus of Ani and The Book of the Dead of Hunefer. The two most celebrated English translations were made by Sir Peter le Page Renouf (1892�?7) and Sir E. Wallis Budge (1895, repr. 1967).
The Book of the Dead
An Introduction by Marie Parsons The Book of the Dead is the name given by Egyptologists to a group of mortuary spells written on sheets of papyrus covered with magical texts and accompanying illustrations called vignettes. These were placed with the dead in order to help them pass through the dangers of the underworld and attain an afterlife of bliss in the Field of Reeds. Some of the texts and vignettes are also found on the walls of tombs and on coffins or written on linen or vellum rather than on papyrus. The texts are divided into individual spells or chapters, nearly two hundred in total, though no one papyrus contains them all. Specific chapters could be selected out of the total repertoire. If the prospective owner of a Book was wealthy and his death not untimely, he might commission a scribe to write the text for him, based upon his personal choice of spells. Other less wealthy clients had to make do with a ready written text, a template, in which spaces had been left for the insertion of the name and titles of the buyer. These spells were influenced by and developed after the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. The spells were originally designated by the Egyptians as the Book of the Coming Forth by Day, expressing the freedom granted to the spirit forms to come and go as they pleased in the afterlife. The Spells in this Book, like the Pyramid Texts and the Coffin Texts (which were named those by Egyptologists), primarily served to provision and protect the deceased. It is concerned with descriptions. and with practical help and magical assistance for the hereafter. Early examples of spells from the Book of the Dead are found on mummy cloths and coffins of the New Kingdom, as were used commonly by officials beginning with the reign of Tuthmosis III, and then they appear on papyri. By the reign of Merneptah the spells appear on the walls of certain tomb chambers, beginning with Spell 125, the Judgment of the Dead. The spells also appeared continuously through the Third Intermediate Period and the Late Period. Some spells such as #148 and 110 appear on temple walls, the latter at Medinet Habu. The chapters such as spells 26-30, and occasionally spell 6 and spell 126, regarding the heart, were inscribed on scarabs. At first, only in certain cases and for special emphasis did spells include a vignette, a symbolic representation in pictorial form summarizing the intent or content of a spell. In a burial chamber from the reign of Tuthmosis III, only two of a total of 35 spells are illustrated, but by the Ramesside Period, the reverse is true and only a few spells are un-illustrated. In Dynasty 21 and in the Late Period, vignettes were often used for the spells, without the texts. But in many manuscripts the vignettes constitute a row of pictures, with texts placed beneath them. The earliest Book of the Dead on record dates to the mid-fifteenth century BCE, but some of the spells had their origins in the Pyramid Texts from the 5th and 6th Dynasties, carved more than 1000 years earlier. The Pyramid Texts themselves in part refer in their own turn to rituals and practices probably in common usage 1000 years prior to them. The Pyramid Texts were carved on the inside or pyramid walls of Kings and queens of the 6th Dynasty and early First Intermediate Period for another 200 years. Eventually more spells were added to the Pyramid Text repertoire, and the texts were written now in the cursive script called hieratic, not in hieroglyphics, within the wooden coffins. These texts are thus now known as Coffin Texts. In the Coffin Texts, as in the Book of the Dead, the sun-god is no longer supreme with regard to the afterlife, as he was in the Pyramid Texts. Some spells in the Book of the Dead still praise the sun-god Ra as being all-important. But, now it is Osiris, the king of the underworld, under whom the blessed dead hope to spend eternity, and it is Osiris with whom the dead become assimiliated as "the Osiris X", where X is the name of the deceased. Osiris also became the judge of the dead, before whom a trial would take place to determine if the deceased was worthy to enter the realm of Osiris in the afterlife. The Coffin Texts also spoke of a belief in an afterlife spent in the Field of Reeds where agricultural tasks would be performed by the deceased for all eternity. To undertake this work for the deceased, the ushabti-formaula makes its first appearance in the Coffin Texts, and are later incorporated into the Book of the Dead. The ushabtis were small figurines, often representing the deceased or servants of the deceased. They would act as magical substitute workers and relieve the deceased of all hard work in the afterlife. None of these concepts were incongruous to the Egyptian. He could believe in an afterlife in which he would spend eternity in the company of the circumpolar stars as a blessed akh, yet also be restricted to the burial chamber and offering chapel of the tomb as a ka, but also visit the world of the living, inhabit the Field of Reed, and travel across the sky and through the underworld as a ba with the sun-god. Sources: The Ancient Egyptian Books of the Afterlife by Erik Hornung, translated by David Lorton
In the Pyramid Text we find the oldest collection of religious spells known to us from ancient Egypt. This collection forms the basis of much of the later religious theology and literature of ancient Egypt. The passages were eventually separated and categorized, as well as illustrated and eventually evolved into the Book of the Dead, or more properly, "The Book of the Coming forth by Day". The oldest of these text come from that Pyramid of Wenis, or more popularly these days, Unas at Saqqara. However, the first Pyramid Text that were actually discovered were from the Pyramid of Pepy I. From Unas, the last king of the 5th Dynasty, varying selections of spells were carved in all the royal pyramids of the Old Kingdom, particularly the sarcophagus chamber and antechamber. There were some 227 spells in the Pyramid of Unas, and each subsequent pyramid provided fresh new additions, though no single pyramid contained the whole collection of spells. The maximum number was 675 utterances from the pyramid of Pepy II. With Teti's pyramid, the text also appeared on the sarcophagus itself, and in the pyramid of Pepy I the inscriptions extend beyond the antechamber. During the rule of Pepy II we begin to find the text in the tombs of queens, and after the Old Kingdom, they even appear on the walls and coffins of officials. Specifically, in the Old Kingdom the text appears in the pyramids of Unas, Tei, Pepy I, Merenre I, Pepy II and Ibi, along with those of queens Wedjebten, Neith and Iput. Recently (March 2000), the discovery of a tenth pyramid containing texts was announced at the 8th International Congress of Egyptology in Cairo by the Head of Egyptian Antiquities Dr. Gaballah and the Director of Excavations, Prof. Jean Leclant. We have difficulty really dating the text. The Pyramid Texts have aroused much speculation regarding their origin because they emerge, as a fully-fledged collection of mortuary texts, without any precedent in the archaeological record. The fact that the texts are made up of distinct utterances which do not have a strict narrative sequence linking them together has led scholars to believe that many of them were not composed specifically for the purpose of being inscribed in the pyramids but may have had earlier uses. In fact, spells such as Utterances 273-4, called the Cannibal Hymn, and which only appears in the Pyramids of Unas and Teti, refer to aspects of the funerary cult that seem to no longer been in practice at the time the pyramids were built. Early analysts attempted to date the text as early as possible; even from the predynastic period. A very early dating of these texts remains a strong possibility, though today, scholars place the text's origins with the date of the monuments where they reside. In reality, we have very little idea of the date of their initial invention, perhaps other than the antiquated language employed. What might also be called Pyramid Spells, were discovered when Gaston Maspero was working on the pyramid of Teti. He began publishing translations of the text as early as 1882, starting with those of Unas. Kurt Sethe also published pyramid texts in his "Dictionary of the Egyptian Language" in 1899. In 1924, a further translation was rendered by Louis Spleleers in French. Gustave Jequier advanced our knowledge of pyramid text considerably during his investigations in southern Saqqara between 1924 and 1936. He added many spells from the pyramid of Pepy II, and also discovered the versions in the pyramids of Wedjebten, Neith, Iput and Ibi. A systematic investigation of the 6th Dynasty pyramids was initiated by Jean-Philippe Lauer and Jean Sainte-Fare Garnot in 1951. Later, Lauer teamed with Jean Leclant to unearth an additional 700 spell fragments from the tomb of Teti and over 2,000 more from that of Pepy I. In 1952, Samuel A. B. Mercer delivered a full English translation of the text then known, but that has since been superseded by a translation of Raymond O. Faulkner. In addition, the extensive commentaries and translations of Sethe were published after his death, appearing between 1935 and 1962. The Pyramid Text differ considerably in length, and were not illustrated. Individual spells are not titled, with the sole exception of spell 355, the "Opening the Double Door of the Sky". The individual signs are outlined in green, hopeful for the regeneration of the deceased. Each column begins with a notation "words to be spoken", though in the tomb of Unas this only appears at the beginning of the composition. The spells are separated by a hieroglyph for house, in all the pyramids with the exception Unas, where they are marked by a horizontal line. All together, Sethe found 714 spells, while Faulkner increased the number to 759, though with some duplicates. We call these spells, "utterances", because we believe they were meant to be spoken by priests in the course of the royal mortuary rituals. They are usually numbered by their position within the pyramid, progressing from the burial chamber outward. We are not really sure in which order the spells are to be read. Sethe started with the north wall of the sarcophagus chamber, but other scholars such as Siegfried Schott and Alexandre Piankoff thought they began at the entrance to the antechamber. There seems no correlation with the text and the four coordinal points. In fact, considerable debate exists as to their actual use and the associated rituals, though there seems to be no question of their ritualistic content. It has been assumed that they were selected from a larger collection of spells for very specific reasons and arranged according to a distinctive point of view. The language, while Old Egyptian, does seem antiquated, displaying differences from other text of the period, including highly redundant language. It is the earliest use of what is referred to as retrograde writing, where the normal sequence of columns is reversed. There is an avoidance of complete figures of animals and people, believed due to the fear that such signs might come to life and pose a danger. The main theme in the Pyramid Texts is the king's resurrection and ascension to the Afterworld and this is described in many different ways. In some of the texts, the king boards the sun-boat of Re and passes through different regions in the sky, encountering many gods. In other texts, the king reaches the sky by flying up as a bird, such as a falcon or a goose. At other times the king climbs up the ladder of the sky. What all these texts have in common is an emphasis on the eternal existence of the king and the location of the sky as the realm of the Afterlife, which is dominated by the sun-god Re. The night sky is also described, particularly the imperishable stars. Generally, the text is supposed to provide services to the deceased king in his ascent into the sky and with his reception in the world of the divine. Every possible means is given for this assistance, including a ladder or ramp leading to the sky, clouds, storms hail, incense and sunlight. The god, Shu, who holds up the sky is there for his assistance, while the text communicates knowledge to the pharaoh of the customs and places in the hereafter. It also warns him of dangers. There are dialogues with gatekeepers and ferryman where the king is given the specific knowledge that he will need in order to name the correct names and answer all the questions needed to prove his legitimacy and make his way though the afterlife. Many of the locations remain unclear to us, but the Field of Reeds, the Field of Offerings, the Lake of the Jackal and the Winding Waterway are clearly important. The waterways of the heavens are navigated by boat, so the king is dependent on the efforts of his ferryman. Though the afterworld is celestial in nature, it does not seem to be all that desirable of a place to stay. Not even Re is happy here, only seemingly able to bear out the time before sunrise when he could be freed. The king arrives in this realm violently, and then is repeatedly identified with the creator god Atum. There are many references to various problems such as repelling the attacks of various supernatural beings and we find, for example in spell 244, the "smashing of the red pots" specifically intended to annihilate one's enemies. But more mundane topics are also approached. On earth, the king had needed a boat to travel throughout Egypt along the Nile; in the next world, he would need a boat as well. Some of the prayers call for food and provisions; some assert that the king will not lose the power of his limbs, that he will still move, breathe, eat, and copulate in the next world. We find an expressed plea for the king to overcome death by entering the eternal course of the cosmos together with the sun god in his solar barque, but we also find the king with a strong, general association with Osiris. Here, we find the earliest known reference to Osiris as the ruler of the underworld. In spell number 239 this relationship is especially evident, and we find considerable reference to the Osiris legend. Almost all of the myth's elements may be found within this text. Osiris' son, Horus, along with Osiris' two sisters, Isis and Nephthys, search for the murdered god (Osiris). Horus finds his father and revives him. It also provides a version of the contention of Horus and Seth. A number of specifically ritualistic text stand out, such as the Opening of the Mouth ceremony, which to the best of our knowledge is here presented for the first time. There are also offering and statue rituals. A few selected utterances include:
Utt. 173-4
The Dead King Hunts and Eats the Gods
The sky is overcast,
The stars are darkened,
The celestial expanses quiver,
The bones of the earth-gods tremble,
The planets are stilled,
For they have seen the King appearing in power
As a god who lives on his fathers
And feeds on his mothers;
The King is a master of wisdom
Whose mother knows not his name.
The glory of the King is in the sky,
His power is in the horizon
Like his father Atum who begot him.
He begot the King,
And the King is mightier than he.
The King's powers are about him,
His qualities are under his feet,
His gods are upon him,
His uraei are on the crown of his head,
The King's guiding serpent is on his brow,
Even that which sees the soul,
Efficient for burning;
The King' neck is on his trunk.
The King is the Bull of the sky,
Who conquers at will,
Who lives on the being of very god,
Who eats their entrails,
Even of those who come with their bodies full of magic
From the Island of Fire.
The King is one equipped,
Who assembles his spirits;
The King has appeared as the Great One,
A possessor of helpers;
He sits with his back to Geb,
For it is the King who will give judgement
In company with Him whose name is hidden
On that day of slaying the Oldest Ones.
The King is a possessor of offerings who knots the cord
And who himself prepares his meal;
The King is one who eats men and lives on the gods,
A possessor of porters who dispatches messages;
It is Grasper-of-topknots who is Kehau
Who lassos them for the King;
It is the Serpent with raised head
Who guards them for him
And restrains them for him;
It is He who is over the blood-offering
Who binds them for him;
It is Khons who slew the lords
Who strangles them for the King
And extracts for him what is in their bodies,
For he is the messenger whom the King sends to restrain.
It is Shezmu who cuts them up for the King
And who cooks for him a portion of them
On his evening hearthstones.
It is the King who eats their magic
And gulps down their spirits;
Their big ones are for his morning meal,
Their middle-sized ones are for his evening meal,
Their little ones are for his night meal,
Their old men and their old women are for his incense-burning.
It is the Great Ones in the north of the sky
Who set the fire for him
To the cauldrons containing them
With the thighs of their oldest ones,
Those who are in the sky serve the King,
And the hearthstones are wiped over for him
With the feet of their women.
He has traveled around the whole of the two skies,
He has circumambulated the Two Banks,
For the King is a great Power
Who has power over the Powers;
The King is a sacred image,
The most sacred of the sacred images of the Great One,
And whomsoever he finds in his way,
Him he devours piecemeal.
The King's place is at the head
Of all the august ones who are in the horizon,
For the King is a god, older than the oldest.
Thousands serve him,
Hundreds offer to him,
There is given to him a warrant as Great Power
By Orion, father of the gods.
The King has appeared again in the sky,
He is crowned as Lord of the horizon;
He has broken the backbones
And has taken the hearts of the gods;
He has eaten the Red Crown,
He has swallowed the Green One.
The King fees on the lungs of the Wise Ones,
And is satisfied with living on hearts and their magic;
The King revolts against licking the...
Which are in the Red Crown.
He enjoys himself when their magic is in his belly;
The King's dignities shall not be taken away from him,
For he has swallowed the intelligence of every god.
The King's lifetime is eternity,
His limit is everlastingness
In this his dignity of:
"If he wishes, he does;
If he dislikes, he does not,"
Even he who is at the limits of the horizon forever and ever.
See, their souls are in the King's belly,
Their spirits are in the King's possession
As the surplus of his meal out of the gods
Which is cooked for the King out of their bones.
See, their souls are in the King's possession,
Their shades are removed from their owners,
While the King is this one who ever appears and endures,
And the doers of (ill) deeds have no power to destroy
The favorite place of the King among those who live in this land
Forever and ever. Utt. 221 The king's prayer: "Ho crown of Lower Egypt! Ho red-crown! Ho Great Crown! Ho Crown great of magic! Ho Fiery Serpent! Grant that the dread of me be like the dread of you; grant that the fear of me be like the fear of you; grant that the acclaim of me be like the acclaim of you; grant that the love of me be like the love of you! Set by aba-scepter at the head of the living, set my sm-scepter at the head of the spirits, and grant that my sword prevail over my foes. Ho red-crown! If you have gone forth from me, so have I gone forth from you." Reply by the crown: "If Ikhet the Great has borne you, Ikhet the Serpent has adorned you; if Ikhet the Serpent has borne you, Ikhet the Great has adorned you, because you are Horus encircled with the protection of his Eye." |
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Utt. 222
§ 205
Provide yourself with the Great of Magic, (even) Set dwelling in Nubet, Lord of Upper Egypt; nothing is lost to you, nothing has ceased for you; behold, you are more renowned and more powerful than the gods of Upper Egypt and their spirits. O you whom the Pregnant One ejected, you have terminated the night, being equipped as Set who broke forth violently, (even) you whom Aset has favoured. Utt. 262
The King, newly dead, appeals to the Gods not to forget Him Be not unaware of me, O God;
If you know me, I will know you.
Be not unaware of me, O God;
Of me it is said: "He who has perished."
Be not unaware of me, O Re;
If you know me, I will know you.
Be not unaware of me, O Re;
Of me it is said: "Greatest of all who have been completely destroyed."
Be not unaware of me, O Thoth;
If you know me, I will know you.
Be not unaware of me, O Thoth;
Of me it is said: "He who rests alone."
Be not unaware of me, O Har-Sopd;
If you know me, I will know you.
Be not unaware of me, O Har-Sopd;
Of me it is said: "Miserable One."
Be not unaware of me, O Dweller in the Netherworld;
If you know me, I will know you.
Be not unaware of me, O Dweller in the Netherworld;
Of me it is said: "He who wakes healthy."
Be not unaware of me, O Bull of the sky;
If you know me, I will know you.
Be not unaware of me, O Bull of the sky;
Of me it is said: "This star of the Lower Sky."
Utt. 264
The Dead King Ferries across the Sky to Join the Sun God The reed-floats of the sky are set down for Horus,
That he may cross on them to the horizon, to Harakhti.
The reed-floats of the sky are set down for me,
That I may cross on them to the horizon, to Harakhti.
The reed-floats of the sky are set down for Shezemti,
That he may cross on them to the horizon, to Harakhti.
The reed-floats of the sky are set down for me,
That I may cross on them to the horizon, to Harakhti.
The Nurse-canal is opened,
The Winding Waterway is flooded,
The Field of Rushes are filled with water,
And I am ferried over
To yonder eastern side of the sky,
To the place where the gods fashioned me,
Wherein I was born, new and young. Utt. 269
A Censing Prayer The fire is laid, the fire shines;
The incense is laid on the fire, the incense shines.
Your perfume comes to me, O Incense;
May my perfume come to you, O Incense.
Your perfume comes to me, you gods;
May my perfume come to you, you gods.
May I be with you, you gods;
May you be with me, you gods.
May I live with you, you gods;
May you live with me, you gods.
I love you, you gods;
May you love me, you gods Utt 273 The sky rains down.
The stars darken.
The celestial vaults stagger.
The bones of Aker (1) tremble.
Those beneath them flee in terror.
At seeing Pharaoh Unis rise as a Ba (2).
A god who lives on his fathers and feeds on his mothers. Pharaoh is Lord of wisdom whose mother knows not his name.
Pharaoh's glory is in the sky, his might is in the horizon.
Like his father, Atum, his begetter.
Though his son, Pharaoh is mightier than he. Pharaoh's Ka's are behind him.
His Hemuset(u) (3) are under his feet.
His gods are over him.
His uraeus-serpents are on his brow.
Pharaoh's guiding-serpent is on his forehead :
she who sees the Ba (of the enemy as) good for burning.
Pharaoh's neck is on his trunk. Pharaoh is the Bull of the sky,
who shatters at will,
who lives on the being of every god,
who eats their entrails,
even of those who come with their bodies
full of magic from the Island of Flame (4). Pharaoh is one equipped,
who assembles his Khu's.
Pharaoh appears as this great one,
Lord of those with (helping) hands.
He sits with his back to Geb,
for it is Pharaoh who weighs what he says,
together with Him-whose-name-is-hidden (5),
on this day of slaying the oldest ones. Pharaoh is Lord of offerings, who knots the cord,
and who himself prepares his meal.
Pharaoh is he who eats men and lives on gods,
Lord of porters, who dispatches written messages. It is 'Grasper-of-the-top-knot', who is Kehau, who lassoes them for Pharaoh.
It is 'Serpent Raised-head' who guards them for him and restrains them for him.
It is 'He-upon-the-willows' who binds them for him.
It is Khonsu, slayer of Lords, who will cut their troats for Pharaoh,
and will extract for him what is in their bodies,
for he is the messenger whom Pharaoh sends to restrain.
It is Shezmu (6) who will cut them up for Pharaoh,
and cooks meals of them in his dinner-pots. Utt 274 It is Pharaoh who eats their magic and gulps down their Khu's.
Their big ones are for his morning meal,
their middle-sized ones are for his evening meal,
their little ones are for his night meal,
their old men and their old women are for his incense-burning.
It is the Great Ones in the North of the sky (7) who light the fire for him
to the cauldrons containing them,
with the thighs of their eldest (as fuel). Those who are in the sky serve Pharaoh,
And the butcher's blocks are wiped over for him,
with the feet of their women. He has revolved around the whole of the two skies.
He has circled the two banks (8).
For Pharaoh is the great power, that overpowers the powers.
Pharaoh is a sacred image, the most sacred image
of the sacred images of the great one.
Whom he finds in his way, him he devours bit by bit (9). Pharaoh's place is at the head of all the noble ones (10) who are in the horizon.
For Pharaoh is a god, older than the oldest.
Thousands revolve around him, hundreds offer to him.
There is given to him a warrant as a great power by Orion (11), the father of the gods. Pharaoh has risen again in the sky.
He is crowned as Lord of the horizon.
He has smashed the back-bones,
and has seized the hearts of the gods.
He has eaten the Red Crown (12).
He has swallowed the Green One (13).
Pharaoh feeds on the lungs of the wise.
And likes to live on hearts and their magic. Pharaoh abhors against licking the coils of the Red Crown.
But delights to have their magic is in his belly.
Pharaoh's dignities will not be taken away from him.
For he has swallowed the knowledge of every god.
Pharaoh's lifetime is eternity.
His limit is everlastingness.
In this his dignity of :
'If-he-likes-he does. If-he-dislikes-he-does-not.'
He who is at the limits of the horizon,
for ever and ever. Lo, their Ba is in Pharaoh's belly.
Their Khu's are in Pharaoh's possession,
as the surplus of his meal out of the gods.
Which is cooked for Pharaoh from their bones. Lo, their Ba is in Pharaoh's possession.
Their shadows are removed from their owners,
while Pharaoh is this one who ever rises and lasting lasts. The doers of ill deeds have no power to destroy,
the chosen seat of Pharaoh,
among the living in this land.
For ever and ever. Utt. 308
§ 489
For I have looked on you as Heru looked on Aset,
I have looked on you as the Snake looked on the Scorpion,
I have looked on you as Sobk looked on Nit,
I have looked on you as Set looked on the Two who are reconciled. Utt. 310
The Gods are warned not to curse or hinder the Dead King on His way to Heaven If I be cursed, then will Atum be cursed;
If I be reviled, then will Atum be reviled;
If I be smitten, then will Atum be smitten;
If I be hindered on this road, then will Atum be hindered,
For I am Horus,
I have come following my father,
I have come following Osiris. Utt. 432
The king prays to the sky-goddess
O Great One who became Sky, You are strong, you are mighty, You fill every place with your beauty, The whole earth is beneath you, you possess it! As you enfold earth and all things in your arms, So have you taken this Pepi to you, An indestructible star within you! Utt. 440
The king asks for admittance to the sky
If you love life, O Horus, upon his life staff of truth, Do not lock the gates of heaven, Do not bolt its bars, After you have taken Pepi's ka into heaven, To the god's nobles, the god's friends, Who lean on their staffs, Guardians of Upper Egypt, Clad in red linen, Living on figs, Drinking wine, Anointed with unguent, That he may speak for Pepi to the great god And let Pepi ascend to the great god! Utt. 442
The king becomes a star
Truly, this Great One has fallen on his side, He who is in Nedyt was cast down. Your hand is grasped by Re, Your head is raised by the Two Enneads. Lo, he has come as Orion, Lo, Osiris has come as Orion, Lord of wine at the wag-feast. "Good one," said his mother, "Heir," said his father, Conceived of sky, born of dusk. Sky conceived you and Orion, Dusk gave birth to you and Orion. Who lives lives by the gods' command, You shall live! You shall rise with Orion in the eastern sky, You shall set with Orion in the western sky, Your third is Sothis, pure of thrones, She is your guide on sky's good paths, In the Field of Rushes. Utt. 446
The sky-goddess protcets the king
O Osiris Pepi, Nut, your mother, spreads herself above you, She conceals you from all evil, Nut protects you from all evil, You, the greatest of her children! Utt. 454
The king's power embraces sky and earth
O Osiris Pepi, You enfold every god in your arms, Their lands and all their possessions! O Osiris Pepi, You are great and round Like the ring that circles the islands! Utt. 486
The king is a primordial god
Hail, O waters brought by Shu, Which the twin springs raised, In which Geb has bathed his limbs, So that hearts lost fear, hearts lost dread. Pepi was born in Nun Before there was sky, Before there was earth, Before there were mountains, Before there was strife, Before fear came about through the Horus Eye. Pepi is one of that great group born aforetime in On, Who are not carried off for a king, Who are not brought before magistrates, Who are not made to suffer, Who are not found guilty. Such is Pepi: he will not suffer, He will not be carried off for a king, He will not be brought before magistrates, The foes of Pepi will not triumph. Pepi will not hunger, His nails will not grow long, No bone in him will be broken. If Pepi goes down into water, Osiris will lift him up, The Enneads will support him, Re will take Pepi by the hand, To where a god may be. If he goes down [to earth] Geb will lift him up, The Enneads will support this Pepi, He will be led by the hand to where a god may be. Utt. 505
§1089
(An 'ascension' text)
I have gone up in Pe to the Souls of Pe, I am girt with the girdle of Heru, I am clad with the garment of Djehuty, Aset is before me and Nebt-Het is behind me, Wepwawet opens a way for me, Shu lifts me up, the Souls of On set up a stariway for me in order to reach the Above, and Nut puts her hand on me just as she did for Wesir on the day when he died. Utt. 508
Someone ascends, I ascend; the Mistress of Dep rejoices and she who dwells in Nekheb is glad on that day on which I ascend to my place, O Re. I have laid down for myself this sunshine of yorus as a stairway under my feet on which I will ascend to that mother of mine, the living uraeus which should be upon me, O Re. She will have compassion on me and will give me her breast that I may suck it; "My son," she says, "take this breast of mine and suck it," she says; "Turn about, O you who have not yet come to the number of your days." The sky thunders, the earth quakes, the gods of Heliopolis tremble at the sound of the offering in my presence. My mother Bastet has nursed me, she who dwells in Nekheb has brought me up; she who dwells in Dep has put her hands on me, and behold, I have come; behold, I have come; behold, I have gone up on high, I will make for myself my meal of figs and wine which are in the vineyard of the god; the butcher of what is under his finger(s) makes a meal for me from it.... My sweat is the sweat of Horus, my odor is the odor of Horus. To the sky! To the sky among the gods who shall ascend! I am bound for the sky among the gods who shall ascend! "My brother is here at my side here," says Geb; he grasps me by my hand and guides me into the gateways of the sky. The god is in my seat, the god is happy in my seat, and Satis has cleansed me with her four jars from Elephantine. "Ho, whence have you come, my son?"
"My father, I have come to the Ennead which is in the sky that I may propitiate it with its bread."
"Ho, whence have you come, my son?"
"My father, I have come to the Ennead which is on earth that I may propitiate it with its bread."
"Ho, whence have you come, my son?"
"My father, I have come to the Dnddndr-bark..."
"Ho, whence have you come, my son?" "My father, I have come to these two mothers of mine, the two vultures long of hair and pendent of breasts who are on the Mountain of Shsh, that they may extend their breasts to my mouth and never wean me." Utt. 517
The king addresses the ferryman
O Boatman of the boatless just, Ferryman of the Field of Rushes! Pepi is just before heaven and earth, Pepi is just before this isle of earth, To which he has swum, to which he has come, Which is between the thighs of Nut! He is that pygmy of the dances of god, Bringer of joy before his great throne! This is what you heard in the houses, What you overheard in the streets On the day Pepi was called to life, To hear what had been ordained. Lo, the two on the great god's throne Who summon Pepi to life, eternal, They are Well-being and Health! Ferry this Pepi to the Field, The great god's beautiful throne, That he may do what is done with the revered: He commends them to the ka's, He assigns them to the bird-catch; Pepi is such a one: He will assign Pepi to the ka's, He will assign Pepi to the bird-catch.
Utt. 535
§1280-1
Thus said Aset and Nebt-Het: The 'screecher' comes, the kite comes, namely Aset and Nebt-Het; they have
come seeking their brother Wesir, seeking ther brother the King.... Weep for your brother O Aset; weep for your
brother, O Nebt-Het; weep for your brother! Aset sits down with her hands on her head, Nebt-Het has grasped
the tips of her breasts because of her brother the King...
Utt. 570
§1464 (The king is one with the sun-god)
I am the redness which came fort from Aset, I am the blood which issued from Nebt-Het; I am firmly bound up(?)
at the waist(?), and there is nothing which the gods ca do for me, for I am the representative of Re, and I do not
die.
Utt. 572
§1472
'How lovely to see, how pleasing to behold!' says Aset, when you ascend to the sky, your power upon you, your
terror about you, your magic at your feet;.... Utt. 573
The king prays for admittance to the sky
Awake in peace, O Pure One, in peace! Awake in peace, Horus of-the-East, in peace! Awake in peace, Soul-of-the-East, in peace! Awake in peace, Horus-of-Lightland, in peace! You lie down in the Night-bark, You awake in the Day-bark, For you are he who gazes on the gods, There is no god who gazes on you! O father of Pepi, take Pepi with you Living, to you mother Nut! Gates of sky, open for Pepi, Gates of heaven, open for Pepi, Pepi comes to you, make him live! Command that this Pepi sit beside you, Beside him who rises in lightland! O father of Pepi, command to the goddess beside you To make wide Pepi's seat at the stairway of heaven! Command the Living One, the son of Sothis, To speak for this Pepi, To establish for Pepi a seat in the sky! Commend this Pepi to the Great Noble, The beloved of Ptah, the son of Ptah, To speak for this Pepi, To make flourish his jar-stands on earth, For Pepi is one with these four gods: Imsety, Hapy, Duamutef, Kebhsenuf, Who live by maat, Who lean on their staffs, Who watch over Upper Egypt. He flies, he flies from you men as do ducks, He wrests his arms from you as a falcon, He tears himself from you as a kite, Pepi frees himself from the fetters of earth, Pepi is released from bondage!
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The Coffin Texts, which basically superseded the Pyramid Text as magical funerary spells at the end of the Old Kingdom are principally a Middle Kingdom phenomenon, though we may begin to find examples as early as the late Old Kingdom. In effect, they democratized the afterlife, eliminating the royal exclusivity of the Pyramid Text.
If the dating of examples in the Dakhla Oasis at the Balat necropolis is correct (Old Kingdom), these would be the oldest known coffin texts, though we can be certain of the text found in the First Intermediate Period pyramid of Ibi (8th Dynasty) at South Saqqara. While examples of the text have been discovered from the Delta south to Aswan, our major sources of the text are found in the later necropolises, especially of regional governors (nomarchs), of the 12th Dynasty, particularly at Asyut, Beni Hasan, Deir el-Bersha, el-Lisht and Meir. The necropolis which probably yielded the largest number of coffin text spells was Deir el-Bersha, the necropolis of the ancient city of Hermopolis. By the end of Egypt's Middle Kingdom, the coffin texts were refined into the corpus of the Book of the Dead (Book of Coming Forth by Day), though we may continue to find the spells in burial chambers of the New Kingdom, Third Intermediate Period and early Late Period. Spells 151, 607 and 625 were particularly popular during these later times. Mostly, as the modern name of this collection of spells implies, the text was found on Middle Kingdom coffins of officials and their subordinates. However, we may also find the spells inscribed on tomb walls, stelae, canopic chests, papyri and even mummy masks. The earliest known research on the coffin text was done by C. R. Lepsius who in 1867, published the first copies from coffins that had been removed to Berlin. Afterwards, there were several publications made of the text from individual coffins, but between 1904 and 1906, Pierre Lacau published many of the Middle Kingdom coffins as part of the Cairo Museum's Catalogue generale. Based on this work, he set out individual spells of the coffin text in a series of articles entitled, "Texts religieux" in a publication called Receuil de travaux between 1904 and 1915. Early on, one part of the coffin text known as the Book of the Two Ways, received special attention. Found on the floor of the coffin of Sen, Hans Schack-Schackenburg published this text in 1903 and in 1926, Kees detailed it in a publication. Using Lacau's work from the Textes religieux, James Henry Breated (1912) and Hermann Kees (1926) both made early evaluations of the coffin text, but the first (relatively) complete publication of the coffin texts was supplied by Adriaan de Buck in seven volumes that were produced between 1935 and 1961. This work was based on the earlier research done by James Henry Breasted and Alan H. Gardiner just after World War I. Though new spells have been added since then, most present day divisions of the spells relies on de Buck's work. Adriaan de Buck's work was used by Louis Speleers, who translated de Buck's first two volumes into French in 1947, and between 1973 and 1978, Raymond O. Faulkner produced the first complete translation into English. He used de Buck's order of spells, while a later translation in French by Paul Barguet produced in 1986, divided them into thematic groups. Today we face many of the same problems in dealing with the coffin text that de Buck faced, which mostly concerns their order. He had no established chronological order and the beginnings or ending of the text were not consistent from one source to the next. Furthermore, the text could be written on all six surfaces in the interior of the coffin, and their progression within any given coffin could vary. Though many are unique to individual coffins, de Buck divided the coffin text into 1,185 spells, with some being assigned to larger compositions such as the Book of the Two Ways. These spells, which always refer to the deceased in the first person singular, attempt to imitate the language of the Old Kingdom, though they are actually produced in the classical language of Middle Egypt. They are inscribed using hieroglyphs, or occasionally early hieratic. Unlike the Pyramid text, they are almost always titled, though at times the title may come at the end of the text. Usually written in vertical columns, the columns are sometimes split in order to save space. Red ink is utilized for emphasis and as divisions between the spells. However, some important spells are completely written using a red pigment. For the first time in funerary literature, the coffin text use graphic depictions, though very infrequently. In both the Book of the Two Ways and in spell 464 known as the Field of Offerings, we find detailed plans. At other times (spells 81 and 100) there are textual descriptions of figures that were meant to strengthen the magical results of the text. Yet the ancient Egyptians were cautious of graphic depictions. One holdover from the Pyramid Texts that we find at least in the early Coffin Text is the mutilation of most of the hieroglyphic signs representing animate objects. Sometimes the glyphs are actually carved as two separate pieces divided by a blank space. At other times, snakes, other animals and various other creatures are inscribed with knives in their backs. This was all intended to ensure that the intact figure would not be able to somehow threaten the deceased person interred nearby. Within the coffin text, the composition that today we refer to as the Book of the Two Ways is the most comprehensive. Usually placed on the inside bottom of coffins examined at Deir el-Bersha, various Egyptologists have divided it into four, or nine sections which can consist of a long version (spells 1,029 through 1,130) or a short version consisting of spells 1,131 through 1,185 but which also includes spells 513 and 577. While the coffin text were available as a tool for the afterlife to all Egyptians, the spells were primarily employed by the local governors and their families of Middle Egypt. The content of the coffin text spells basically continued the tradition of the Pyramid Text, though the afterlife is better defined, and its dangers are portrayed more dramatically. They were intended to aid the deceased during his afterlife. The spells providing protection against supernatural beings and other dangers and helped assure the deceased admission into the cyclical course of the sun, and thus, eternal life. Other spells, such as number 472, were used to activate ushabti figures so that they could perform various labor related duties for the deceased during the afterlife. However, we also find interesting new components not found within the older Pyramid Text. Now, we find spells (268-295), meant to allow the deceased king ascent to the sky in the form of a bird, but which may also be used to transform the deceased into anyone of a number of different deities. For example, spell 290 reads: "into every god into which one might desire to transform". However, with other spells the deceased could become fire, air, grain, a child or perhaps even a crocodile. This may explain why, during the Middle Kingdom, the scarab beetle, representing transformation, was one of the most popular amulets. Other newly created spells also allowed the deceased to be reunited with his loved ones and family during the afterlife. Significantly, for the first time we also find within the coffin texts spells to deal with Apophis, a huge serpent who had to be combated as the enemy of the sun. Apophis would continue to play a major role in the refined funerary books of Egypt's New Kingdom. In the coffin text, we now find that all of the deceased must be subjected to the "Judgement of the Dead", based on the actions during his or life, rather than on a person by person indictment. Many of the coffin text spells play on the concepts of creation, so we find the deceased portrayed as a primeval god and creator and once series of spells references the creator god and his children, Shu and Tefnut, who were given the responsibility of creation. At other times the deceased takes on the form of Osiris, or that gods helper, while he may also be portrayed as his devoted son, Horus, who rushes to his fathers aid as in spell 312. One reason that the composition within the coffin text known as the Book of the Two Ways, perhaps originally composed at Hermopolis, has received so much attention is that, for the first time, it describes a cosmography. It was perhaps originally titled, the "Guide to the Ways of Rosetau" and the ancient Egyptians believed the composition was discovered "under the flanks of Thoth". Rosetau is a term regularly translated by Egyptologists as the Underworld or Netherworld, which would be misleading in this case. Here, the journey is made through the sky. It takes the deceased on a journey to the Kingdom of Osiris on a route with the sun god, first from east to west along a waterway through the inner sky and then back again from west to east by land through the outer sky (the two ways). Between the two ways was a Lake of Flames, where the ambivalent fire could consume (the damned) but also serve the purpose of regeneration (to those blessed followers of the sun god, Re).
Above: Coffin Text and the Book of the Two Ways;
Below: A rendering of the Book of the Two Ways
Though not nearly as elaborate as later New Kingdom books of the netherworld, it was meant to depart to the deceased the necessary knowledge needed to navigate their way to the afterlife while avoiding the many dangers of their journey. While this guide was not as systematic as, for example, the later Book of Gates, it nevertheless provided warnings and a schematic plan making it the first real guide to the afterlife. Unlike the later funerary books, the Book of the Two Ways does not begin with the sunset, but rather with the sunrise in the eastern sky. Hence, the journey takes place in the sky rather than the underworld. The deceased is faced with many obstacles, such as the threatening guardians at the very gates of the hereafter that must be dealt with before the entering. Other dangers include the "fiery court", which is the circle of fire about the sun. At other times, total darkness followed by walls of flame seem to continuously block the deceased path. In fact, within the very middle of this composition we find a region known a Rosetau, which is "at the boundary of the sky". According to spell 1,080, it is here that the corpse of Osiris resides and the region is locked in complete darkness, as well as surrounded by fire. If the deceased can reach this region and gaze upon Osiris, he cannot die. Consistently there are regions that the deceased wishes to reach, but must overcome dangers to do so. Another of these is the Field of Offerings (peace, or Hetep), a paradise of abundance, but again the path is full of obstacles. By the end of the book, the deceased encounters confusing paths that cross each other, many leading nowhere. An important concept found within the Book of the Two Ways (spells 1,100 through 1,110) is that of seven gates, each with three guardians. Though primitive, this is obviously an early text that would later evolve into the New Kingdom Books of the Netherworld such as the Amduat. At these boundaries, the deceased must display his knowledge to the guardians in order to establish their legitimacy to proceed in the afterlife. By the center of the last section of this text, we find three boats, all of which may perhaps be intended as the solar barque, from which the serpent Apophis must be repelled. In spell 1,130, the "Lord of All" gives us his final monologue from his barque: WORDS SPOKEN BY HIM WHOSE NAMES ARE HIDDEN.
The Lord to the Limit speaks
before those who still the storm, at the sailing of the entourage: 'Proceed in peace!
I shall repeat to you four good deeds
that my own heart made for me
within the serpent's coils, for love of stilling evil.
I did four good deeds within the portals of the horizon: I made the four winds that every man might breathe in his place.
This is one deed thereof.
I made the great inundation, that the wretched should have power over it like the great.
This is one deed thereof.
I made every man like his fellow;
I did not ordain them to do evil, (but) it was their own hearts which destroyed that which I pronounced. *
This is one deed thereof.
I made that their hearts should refrain from ignoring the west,
for love of making offerings to the gods of the nomes.
This is one deed thereof.
I created the gods from my sweat.
Man is from the tears of my eye. I shine, and am seen every day
in this authority of the Lord to the Limit.
I made the night for the Weary-hearted. **
I will sail aright in my bark;
I am the lord of the waters, crossing heaven.
I do not suffer for any of my limbs.
Utterance together with Magic
are felling for me that evil being.
I shall see the horizon and dwell within it.
I shall judge the wretch from the powerful,
and do likewise against the evildoers.
Life is mine; I am its lord.
The sceptre shall not be taken from my hand.
I have placed millions of years
between me and that Weary-hearted one, the son of Geb;
then I shall dwell with him in one place.
Mounds will be towns.
Towns will be mounds.
Mansion will destroy mansion.' I am the lord of fire who lives on truth,
the lord of eternity, maker of joy, against whom the otherworldly serpents have not rebelled.
I am the god in his shrine, the lord of slaughter, who calms the storm,
who drives off the serpents, the many-named who comes forth from his shrine,
the lord of winds who foretells the northwind,
many-named in the mouth of the ennead,
lord of the horizon, creator of light,
who illumines heaven with his own beauty.
I am he! Make way for me
so that I shall see Niu and Amen.
For I am a blessed spirit, equipped with otherworldly knowledge;
I shall pass by the fearful ones -
They cannot speak (the spell) which is on the end of the book-roll;
they cannot speak for fear of him whose name is concealed, who is eithin my body.
I know him; I am not ignorant of him.
I am equipped, excellent in opening portals. As for any man who knows this spell,
he shall be like Re in the east of heaven,
like Osiris within the Netherworld;
he descends into the entourage of fire,
without there being a flame being against him, for all time and eternity! Thus, he recounts all his beneficial deeds when he created the world, and for the first time, we also find him foretelling the end of this creation after "millions of years". Apparently, only he and Osiris will survive beyond this end of time. Some Selected Spells: A Spell for the Revival of Osiris (74) Ah Helpless One!
Ah Helpless One Asleep!
Ah Helpless One in this place
which you know not-yet I know it!
Behold, I have found you [lying] on your side
the great Listless One.
'Ah, Sister!' says Iris to Nephthys,
'This is our brother,
Come, let us lift up his head,
Come, let us [rejoin] his bones,
Come, let us reassemble his limbs,
Come, let us put an end to all his woe,
that, as far as we can help, he will weary no more.
May the moisture begin to mount for this spirit!
May the canals be filled through you!
May the names of the rivers be created through you!
Osiris, live!
Osiris, let the great Listless One arise!
I am Isis.'
'I am Nephthys.
It shall be that Horus will avenge you,
It shall be that Thoth will protect you
-your two sons of the Great White Crown-
It shall be that you will act against him who acted-against you,
It shall be that Geb will sec,
It shall be that the Company will hear.
Then will your power be visible in the sky
And you will cause havoc among the [hostile] gods,
for Horus, your son, has seized the Great White Crown,
seizing it from him who acted against you.
Then will your father Atum call 'Come!' Osiris, live!
Osiris, let the great Listless One arise!' Osiris, the Prototype of every Soul Who Hopes to Conquer Death (197) Now are you a king's son, a prince,
as long as your soul exists, so long will your heart be with you.
Anubis is mindful of you in Busiris,
your soul rejoices in Abydos where your body is happy on the High Hill
Your embalmer rejoices in every place.
Ah, truly, you are the chosen one!
you are made whole in this your dignity which is before me,
Anubis' heart is happy over the work of his hands
and the heart of the Lord of the Divine Hall is thrilled
when he beholds this good god,
Master of those that have been and Ruler over those that are to come. Mans Soul Identified with Both Osiris and With Nature (330) Whether I live or die I am Osiris,
I enter in and reappear through you,
I decay in you, I grow in you,
I fall down in you, I fall upon my side.
The gods are living in me for I live and grow in the corn
that sustains the Honoured Ones.
I cover the earth,
whether I live or die I am Barley.
I am not destroyed.
I have entered the Order,
I rely upon the Order,
I become Master of the Order,
I emerge in the Order,
I make my form distinct,
I am the Lord -of the Chennet (Granary of Memphis?)
I have entered into the Order,
I have reached its limits. . . .
One of the best preserved copies of The Book of the Dead (known to the ancient Egyptians as prt m hrw 'Coming Forth by Day') comes from 'The Papyrus of Ani', written in 1240 BC. This version of the book is filled with beautiful pictures of Ani and his wife as they travel through the land of the dead, and to the Halls of Ma'ati and beyond.
The papyrus goes through many of the spells used to be able to survive the afterlife, as well as hymns of praise various gods. This collection has come to be known as The Book of the Dead, though it is not a book, per se. The spells were written both on papyrus and on the walls of tombs. Ani's papyrus is full of hymns and praises to the deities (Osiris, Ra and Hathor) and various speeches and spells to get him past the tests and judgements of the underworld. The texts relating to the weighing of the heart in the Halls of Ma'ati where Ani's heart is proven to be the same weight as the feather. Thoth, the judge of right and truth of the Great Company of the Gods who are in the presence of Osiris, saith: Hear ye this judgment. The heart of Osiris hath in very truth been weighed, and his Heart-soul hath borne testimony on his behalf; his heart hath been found right by the trial in the Great Balance. There hath not been found any wickedness in him; he hath not wasted the offerings which have been made in the temples; he hath not committed any evil act; and he hath not set his mouth in motion with words of evil whilst he was upon earth.
The gods laud Ani, saying that he speaks the truth, and that he shall escapes the jaws of Ammut.
The Great Company of the Gods say to Thoth who dwelleth in Khemenu: That which cometh forth from thy mouth shall be declared true. The Osiris the scribe Ani, whose word is true, is holy and righteous. He hath not committed any sin, and he hath done no evil against us. The devourer Ammut shall not be permitted to prevail over him. Meat offerings and admittance into the presence of the god Osiris shall be granted unto him, together with an abiding habitation in the Field of Offerings (Sekhet-hetepet), as unto the Followers of Horus.
The gods welcome Ani, where Horus ushers him into the presence of Osiris.
Horus, the son of Isis, saith: I have come to thee, O Un-Nefer, and I have brought unto thee the Osiris Ani. His heart is righteous, and it hath come forth from the Balance; it hath not sinned against any god or any goddess. Thoth hath weighed it according to the decree pronounced unto him by the Company of the Gods, and it is most true and righteous. Grant thou that cakes and ale may be given unto him, and let him appear in the presence of the god Osiris, and let him be like into the Followers of Horus for ever and ever.
Afterwards, Ani has spells to recite to allow him past the seven 'Arit', so he can be transported to live among the blessed spirits in the domain of Osiris. The Arit are guarded by a doorkeeper, a watcher and a herald. Knowing the name of these guardians, and knowing the spell would allow one to pass through.
If [these] words be recited by the spirit when he shall come to the Seven Arits, and as he entereth the doors, he shall neither be turned back nor repulsed before Osiris, and he shall be made to have his being among the blessed spirits, and to have dominion among the ancestral followers of Osiris. If these things be done for any spirit he shall have his being in that place like a lord of eternity in one body with Osiris, and at no place shall any being contend against him.
The next ordeal was to pass the 'Pylons of the House of Osiris', and here, too, knowing the name and the spell would allow Ani to pass through. At each of the twenty one Pylons, Ani had to recite the correct spell before continuing on to Osiris.
[And the god Osiris saith:] "Thou hast come, thou shalt be a favoured one in Tetu, O Osiris Auf-ankh, whose word is truth, the son of the lady Shert-en-Menu, whose word is truth."
Following these trials are a number of spells to be said for the deceased at his funeral, complete with instructions to the priests who would read the papyrus over the body. Here, for instance, is 'The Chapter of Not Letting the Heart of the Osiris, The Assessor of the Divine Offerings of all the Gods, Ani, Whose Word is Truth Before Osiris, Be Driven Back from Him in Khert-Neter':
He saith:- My heart of my mother. My heart of my mother. My heart-case of my transformations. Let not any one stand up to bear testimony against me. Let no one drive me away from the Tchatcha Chiefs. Let no one make thee to fall away from me in the presence of the Keeper of the Balance. Thou art my ka the dweller in my body, the god Khnemu who makest sound my members. Mayest thou appear in the place of happiness whither we go. Let not make my name to stink Shenit Chiefs, who make men to be stable. [Let it be satisfactory unto us, and let the listening be satisfactory unto us, and let there be joy of heart to us at the weighing of words. Let not lies be told against me before the Great God, the Lord of Amentet. Verily, how great shalt thou be when thou risest up in triumph!]
These words are to be said over a scarab of green stone encircled with a band of refined copper, and [having] a ring of silver; which shall be placed on the neck of the Khu (the deceased), etc. These spells were recited to allow the deceased to speak, to have magical powers, to not allow the ab to be left behind, to have protection against fire and dominion over water, to be able to breath the divine air, to not let others speak evil against the deceased, to become one with the imperishable stars, to not allow the Khat to decay and rot away. There are many more spells that were to keep physical parts of the deceased in good condition, and to give the metaphysical parts magical powers and the ability to live on with the gods in the afterlife. For instance, there is a chapter on making the sahu enter the Duat on the day of the funeral! There was even a spell to allow the ba and the khaibi to move freely:
The Osiris the scribe Ani, whose word is truth, saith:- The place which is closed is opened, the place which is shut (or sealed) is sealed. That which lieth down in the closed place is opened by the Ba-soul which is in it. By the Eye of Horus I am delivered. Ornaments are stablished on the brow of Ra. My stride is made long. I lift up my two thighs [in walking]. I have journeyed over a long road. My limbs are in a flourishing condition. I am Horus, the Avenger of his Father, and I bring the Urrt Crown [and set it on] its standard. The road of souls is opened. My twin soul seeth the Great God in the Boat of Ra, on the day of souls. My soul is in the front thereof with the counter of the years. Come, the Eye of Horus hath delivered for me my soul, my ornaments are stablished on the brow of Ra. Light is on the faces of those who are in the members of Osiris. Ye shall not hold captive my soul. Ye shall not keep in durance my shadow. The way is open to my soul and to my shadow. It seeth the Great God in the shrine on the day of counting souls. It repeateth the words of Osiris. Those whose seats are invisible, who fetter the members of Osiris, who fetter Heart-souls and Spirit-souls, who set a seal upon the dead, and who would do evil to me, shall do no evil to me. Haste on the way to me. Thy heart is with thee. My Heart-soul and my Spirit-soul are equipped; they guide thee. I sit down at the head of the great ones who are chiefs of their abodes. The wardens of the members of Osiris shall not hold thee captive, though they keep ward over souls, and set a seal on the shadow which is dead. Heaven shall not shut thee in.
These spells even talk about giving Ani the ability to return to look on his earthly house and to come back against his enemies.
Sets of transformation spells written to allow the deceased to turn into a wide variety of animals - swallows, hawks, serpents, crocodiles, herons and even a phoenix. Other transformations included the ability to turn into a holy lotus, or even into different gods. A chapter of 'Negative Confessions' has Ani speaking to each god who sits in judgement, saying that he has not committed a number of sins - violence, theft, murder, lies, adultery and arrogance to name a few. Finally, in the Duat, Ani was able to give homage to the gods in the Halls of Ma'ati They say unto me,
"Who art thou?"
And they say unto me,
"What is thy name?"
[And I reply],
"Sept-kheri-nehait-ammi-beq-f" is my name.
Then they say unto me,
"Advance straightway on the city which is to the North of the Olive Tree. What dost thou see there?"
The doors attempt to block Ani's path through, but the deceased must name each part of the door before it would allow him to pass to stand before Thoth.
[Thoth saith]:
"Advance now, [thy name] shall be announced to him. Thy cakes shall come from the Utchat (Eye of Horus or Ra), thy ale shall come from the Utchat, and the offerings which shall appear to thee at the word upon earth [shall proceed] from the Utchat." This is what Osiris hath decreed for the steward of the overseer of the seal, Nu, whose word is truth."
Finally Ani is allowed to become like a god. Each part of his body becomes like that of a deity - his eyes like the eyes of Hathor, his face like the face of Ra, the cheeks of Isis, the backbone of Set, the belly of Sekhmet, buttocks of the Eye of Horus, the phallus of Osiris, the thighs of Nut and the feet of Ptah. Each part changes until Ani is as a god.
Isis and Nephthys become his protectors, as they protected Osiris. The four Sons of Horus come to act as his guardians, to smite his enemies. Ani says to his new protectors: I am a perfect soul dwelling in the divine egg of the Abtu Fish. I am the Great Cat which dwelleth in the Seat of Truth, wherein the god Shu riseth.
Ushabti figures come to life and offer to do any work for Ani, to plough the fields and irrigate the land in the Land of the West, whenever he calls. Another spell provides Ani with meat and milk from the Seven Cows and their Bull, giving him their names, and power over them.
Through the spells in The Book of the Dead, the scribe Ani is able to overcome any obstacle in his path, and to provide himself with food and drink and everything he needs to dwell happily in the Land of the West for eternity. He has gained such power and such magic that he is, himself, like a deity and can live among the gods. Ani's papyrus was the best preserved with its beautiful images mostly intact, but there were many version of The Book of the Dead. The earliest were in the pyramids - known as the Pyramid Texts - such as those for Unas, Teta and Pepi I. Later on, there were versions written on papyrus and left in the tomb of the deceased. There were huge changes made over time, with only select spells being used or, later in Egyptian history, the more ritual parts of the text disappearing completely. There were also changes made that were influenced by whichever god had the most powerful priests at the time. Eventually manuscripts of these spells were pre-written and sold with spaces left for a name! The title 'Coming Forth by Day' refers to the belief that the deceased took a whole night (as did Ra with his solar barque) to travel through the realms of the dead. The said spirit would then emerge with the sun, triumphant.
The Book of the Dead, the ceremonies, rituals and magic were all done in the hopes that one could reach the Land of the West and a happy afterlife, filled with good things. To live forever with the gods. To, once more, come forth by day as a living man would awaken with the sun.
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The magical text that decorated the tombs of the ancient pharaohs of Egypt basically provided a detailed roadmap of the what the Egyptians believed to be the Netherworld. Actually, most of these were derived in some manner from the much earlier Pyramid Texts developed by the Kings of the 5th and 6th Dynasty. While a number of tombs are said to contain the whole text of one are more of these books, none actually have the entire text of any single book, though some have most of the text. Other tombs simply have passages from the books. The oldest of the royal funerary books is the Amduat. From the Ramessid period onward, the underworld and the heavens received new attention. The commonly used names of all the books are of modern origin. The books include: Pyramid Text are the oldest collection of religious spells known to us from ancient Egypt. This collection forms the basis of much of the later religious theology and literature of ancient Egypt. The passages were eventually separated and categorized, as well as illustrated and eventually evolved into the Book of the Dead, or more properly, "The Book of the Coming forth by Day". The oldest of these text come from that Pyramid of Wenis, or more popularly these days, Unas at Saqqara. However, the first Pyramid Text that were actually discovered were from the Pyramid of Pepy I. The Coffin Text, which basically superseded the Pyramid Text as magical funerary spells at the end of the Old Kingdom, are principally a Middle Kingdom phenomenon, though we may begin to find examples as early as the late Old Kingdom. In effect, they democratized the afterlife, eliminating the royal exclusivity of the Pyramid Text. Amduat (Called by the Egyptians, the Book of the Secret Chamber): As mentioned above, this book is the earliest of all funerary text, and documents the sun god's journey through the 12 divisions of the underworld, beginning on the western horizon and reappearing as Kehpri, the newborn sun in the East. They correspond to the 12 hours of the night. Amduat can be interpreted to mean, "That Which Is in the Underworld". In this book the dead pharaoh travels through the underworld to the afterlife in his solar boat. While most tombs in the Valley of the Kings (on the West Bank at Luxor which was ancient Thebes) contain passages from the book, the burial chambers of Tuthmosis III and Amenophis II contain almost the complete text. Litany of Re: This is a two part Litany of the Sun that provides the sun God Re under 75 different forms in the first part. The second part is a series of prayers in which the pharaoh assumes various parts of nature and various deities but particularly that of the sun god. Developed in the 18th Dynasty, it also praises the king for his union with the sun God, as well as other deities. The text was used in the entrance of most tombs from the time of Seti I, though we first know of it form the burial chamber of Tuthmosis III. Book of Gates: We first know of the Book of Gates in the late 18th Dynasty, but passages from the book appear in the burial chambers and first pillared halls of most tombs thereafter. Like the Amduat, but somewhat of a more sophisticated text, this book references the hours of the night, but referred to as the 12 gates and emphasis is placed on the gates as barriers. It deals with the problems of the underworld, such as Apophis, justice, material blessings and time. The infinity of time was symbolized by an apparently endless snake or doubly twisted rope being spun from the mouth of a deity. Time is thought of as originating in the depths of creation, and eventually falling back into the same depths. The most complete texts we find in tombs appears on the tomb of Ramesses VI and on the sarcophagus of Seti I. Book of the Dead (Called by the Egyptians, the Book of Coming Forth by Day): While this book is well known to many modern fans of Egyptian antiquities, it was certainly not the most important of the funerary texts. In fact, the earliest examples of the book were used by commoners. Later, passages from the Book of the Dead can be found in the antechambers of some Ramessid tombs. The book is actually a collection of magical spells, many of which were derived from earlier Coffin and Pyramid Texts. Book of Caverns: This books gives us a vision of the underworld as a series of six pits, or caverns over which the sun god passes. Most of the underworld is illustrated, while the text primarily praises Osiris. It stresses the destruction of the enemies of the sun god, and references afterlife rewards and punishments. The dead King, in order to complete his journey through the underworld, must know the secret names of the serpents and be able to identify his guardian deities. We only know of a nearly complete version in the tomb of Ramesses VI, though it appears in the upper parts of others. Books of the Heavens: This book, developed during the late New Kingdom, describes the sun's passage through the heavens. There are actually a number of individual books, but the better documented of these include the Book of the Day, the Book of the Night and the Book of Nut. Closely related is The Book of the Celestial Cow. For example, the Book of the Night, like other books, documents the sun's journey but set within Nut, goddess of the heavens. She swallows the sun at the close of the day and gives birth to it each morning. Passages from these books are mostly found in Ramessid period tombs. The Book of the Divine Cow begins with the "Myth of the Destruction of Mankind", the Egyptian version of the story of the great flood. In the beginning daylight was always present, and humans and gods cohabited on earth. This was depicted as paradise, but humans rebelled against the aging sun god, Ra. Ra sent Hathor as his eye (cobra snake) to punish the rebels, who began to destroy them with fire. However, Ra ended up feeling sorry for them and so deceived Hathor into letting some humans live. Ra then rearranged heaven and the underworld and left earth on the back of the celestial cow. Book of the Earth: This is a four part book describing the sun's night time passage through the underworld. It was developed in the 20th dynasty, and appears in the burial chamber of several late Ramessid tombs. It also sometimes appears on some anthropoid sarcophagi of the same period.
The Litany of Re was a major religious composition known from the New Kingdom. Though most of the renderings are found in tombs, it is not really a book of the netherworld, or a guide to the paths crossing that dark world, though in its theme is seems to be related. Instead, it is a guide to the forms and names of the sun god that also seeks to establish an equality between the dead king and the sun god, and the sun god's ba, or soul. It also contends with the sun god's daily course. Sources from Antiquity The Litany of Re was a special composition that, at least a portion of which, was inscribed in the tomb of Tuthmosis III and the tomb of his vizier, Useramun. These excerpts evidently related to each other. Though the series of figures to the "Great Litany" also appear in both tombs, there are no further illustrations. We actually find the first occurrence of the whole composition, are mostly whole for there are a few omissions, on the shroud dedicated by Amenhotep II to his father, Tuthmosis III (without illustrations). Interestingly, the composition then disappears until the reign of Seti I, in whose tomb we find for the first time the figure related to the title. Interestingly, the composition could have also been found in the tomb of Amenmesse, but Seti II ordered it hacked from this location in order to harm him in the afterlife. Afterwards, the book becomes a standard motif in the first and second corridors, indicating its importance, of the royal tombs. However, Ramesses VI omits the text from his tomb, while Ramesses IX (tomb and X (tomb) only include extracts in theirs. Normally, the depictions were always reserved for the second corridor, while the text was inscribed in the first corridor, sometimes spilling over in the second. In the tombs of both Kings Seti I and Ramesses II (tomb), all of the hieroglyphs face the interior of the tomb, while we find in the tombs of Merneptah on, they uniformly face to the right so that all the columns of text are reversed. In the Late Period, we also find depictions of the Litany of Re in tombs, such as those of Mentuemhet, Petamenophis and Ibi. Outside of tombs, we also find portions of the figures in the decorations commissioned by Merneptah in the Osireion of Seti I at Abydos, together with a complete sequence in the temple built by Ramesses II at that site. By Egypt's Late Period, we also find the depictions actually inscribed in temples, such as the edifice of Taharqa and the chapel of Hakoris at Karnak, as well as extracts in the Nilometer at Roda. Certain passages from the Litany of Re were also adopted for the Book of the Dead. By the 18th Dynasty, excerpts from the composition were used as spell 127 (beginning with the manuscript of Maiherperi dating to the reign of Amenhotep II), and as spell 180 in the early 19th Dynasty, beginning with the sarcophagus of Seti I. Spell 127, addresses the "gods in the caverns" and associated them with the guardians of the gates of the netherworld. Here, we also find the only mention of the Place of Annihilation in the Book of the Dead. Later, we also find spell 127 is in the tombs of Ramesses IV (tomb)and Ramesses VI. Spell 180, which begins with the central verse, "It is Re, who rests in Osiris", is attested on the coffin of Seti I and in part at the Osireion. In addition, it is also found in the tomb of an official (TT3) and on papyri (Qenna, Neferrenpet, Louvre 3073) from the end of the 18th Dynasty and the beginning of the 19th. It should be noted that the familiar depictions of the ram- headed Re-Osiris found in the tomb of Nefertari and others of the 19th Dynasty were actually a part of the spells of the Book of the Dead and not the Litany of Re. In contrast, the Books of the Netherworld are never found in the Book of the Dead, except for the special case of spell 168. Research into the Litany of Re It was Richard Pococke who published a very early description of the Litany of Re discovered in the tomb of Ramesses IV, but text editions of the composition were actually among the earliest publicized by Egyptologists. As early as 1869, Edouard Naville investigated the text in the tombs of Seti I and Ramesses IV, publishing a translation into French in 1875. He also published an English translation in 1876. Thereafter, for almost a century, his references became the standard for scholarly study of the Litany of Re, though in 1936 Hermann Grapow published a paper on the text and depictions. In 1964, Alexandre Piankoff again published the composition, but included no hieroglyphic text, though he did include photographs from several tombs, including those of Seti I and II together with the shroud of Tuthmosis III. His work included a translation into English. The latest full, scholarly work appears to have come from Erik Hornung, a German who included all the New Kingdom versions in a commentary volume in his edition of 1975. Form of the Litany of Re Though many of the Books of the Netherworld do not include an original title, in the tomb of Useramun we discover that the old Egyptian name of this composition was the "Book of Praying to Re in the West (or Book of Adoring Re in the West), Praying to the United One in the West". Here, there are also remarks regarding the manner of recitation and efficacy of the text. The composition begins with the Great (or large) Litany, where the sun god is invoked a total of seventy-five times in various names and forms. Each invocation begins with "Praise to you, oh Re, great of power". After the Great Litany, eight more follow but only the sixth section is composed in verse. In fact, the structure of the remaining text is often unclear, as only the litanies are distinctly separated because of their unique initial refrains. The early content of the composition contained the divine figures that illustrate each of the invocations. From the earliest examples, these depictions were divided so that they alternate in two series. For example, they face each other on the north and south walls of the tomb of Useramun, though in the Ramesside tombs they are on both walls of the second corridor, with the left wall being dominant. Hence, the illustrations alternate up to the 51st invocation, with the odd numbered figures on the the left and the even numbered figures on the right. However, this structure is interrupted by two successive figures (51 and 52) on the left and two (53 and 54) on the right. Afterwards, the alternation continues, though now in reverse order, with the even numbered figures on the left and the odd numbered figures on the right. Each invocation is illustrated by the figure of a god, with the 76th figure that of the ba of Re, as a ram's head in the red disk of the sun. Most of the figures appear in a mummiform state, with a few in the form of animals, such as the ram and scarab beetle as the two main figures of the sun god and the "Big Tomcat" that embodies his punishing aspect, and the "Divine Eye". Structurally, by dividing the 75 invocations into three divisions of 25 each, we recognize special emphasis on the 26th and the 51st figures. The figures may also be grouped in divisions of ten each, with the first ten differing in structure from the rest, while the following group of ten is reserved for an extended Ennead. The union of Re and Osiris receives special treatment within the composition, and the two sequences of figures are constantly divided between them. The figures of Osiris are found only in the sequence on the left, while the right side consists of many scarab beetles. The left side also includes figures of Atum, the ba of Re and the Great Cat. The names and and the figures that are depicted are the most important forms and attributes of the sun god while in the netherworld. Hence, we find the Khepri (three times), his morning form, Aten, his evening form, the ba of Re, together with his various ram forms, as well as his forms of cat and child, the divine Eye, the sun disk and the accompanying figure of a baboon. The remaining gods and goddesses of the Ennead are also present, though here, Seth is replaced by Horus. Nun and Tatenen, primeval gods of representing the depths of water and earth, are also present. We find Osiris only as Khentamentiu, though two names refer to the union of the two gods, which represents a central theme of the entire litany. Re's association with the netherworld is emphasized by several names, including "he of the netherworld", "he of the cave", "he who has command over his cave", "he who renews the earth", and "he of the West". Several other names portray his journey through the netherworld and in the concluding text of the composition, he is even called "migratory bird". Since death and rebirth are both represented in the composition, rejoicing and mourning are also present and some names reference the corpse of Re, and even the corpse' decay, which must precede his rebirth. He is called "The Weeping One", referring to the theology of human beings emerging from the tears of he creator god, and as a corpse, he is "He in the Sarcophagus" The double aspect of the sun during the night hours is presented. He is referred to as "The Dark One" or "The One with the Dark Face", but also as "The Shining one" whose rays are longed for by the dead. Re's beneficent deeds for the blessed dead, as well as his function as in punishing the damned are represented, for he is "The One Who Enchains" and "The One from the Cauldron and generally "The One who Destroys his Enemies". He is also the one who "has arranged the heat in the Place of Destruction". Even as early as the tomb of Useramun, additional depictions augment the divine figures. Here, the vizier actually placed his own figure at the end of both sequences, and even his wife and other family members are represented at the end of the left-hand sequence. In the tomb of Tuthmosis III, where the two sequences cover the two pillars of his burial chamber, he had himself and female members of his family depicted on an adjoining side of one of the pillars. At Abydos, Ramesses II expanded the sequence in his temple to include even royal ancestors, consisting of his parents and grandfather, as well as Ahmose, the founder of the New Kingdom. However, like Merneptah in the Osireion, Ramesses II is only presented making offerings to the them. For the first time in his version, the figures also contain a small sun disk to indicate the presence of the sun god within them. For the first time in the version of the composition found in the tomb of Seti I, an additional "title" illustration (figures 85 and 87) are inserted between the title of the book and the Great Litany. The central depictions is of a scarab and a ram headed god, both contained within a disk. Above are a serpent and an antelope, while a crocodile and an antelope are depicted below. Though these illustrations are problematic, John C. Darnell suggest that the animals have been dispatched by the sun god against his enemies. Thus, they may act as his bodyguards. However, Erik Hornung, perhaps more correctly, sees them as enemies fleeing from the sun god. Strangely, a representation of the united Re and Osiris was added in the tomb of Nefertari (figure 86). Not a part of the actual Litany of Re, it rather belongs to spell 180 of the Book of the Dead. This illustration also appears in the tombs of some royal officials dating to the 19th Dynasty, as well as QV40, the tomb of an anonymous queen in the Valley of the Queens. The Content of the Litany of Re Though the hours of the night play no part in this book, it should be noted that the number twelve seems to have significance throughout. The Litany of Re is a description of, and praise for the deity who descends into the netherworld at night and meets Osiris as the ruler of the netherworld and of the dead. Its theme is the direct equating of the deceased pharaoh with the sun god Re, with his ba-soul which is actually that of Osiris, and with the daily course of the sun. Re, combined with the ba of Osiris as one god, who "speaks with one mouth", awakens the dead to renewed life, as well as caring for the blessed and punishing the damned. Though not actually a part of the Litany of Re, this ram- headed Re-Osiris is found as an addition in the tomb of Nefertari. The host of figures and functions of this nocturnal sun god in the Great (or large) Litany opens the way to the netherworld for the deceased. There is also a desire to include the dead king in the course of the sun, therefore providing him with daily renewal. The deceased king expresses this desire as "My birth is the birth of Re in the West". The connection with the course of the sun is why the text accompanying the union between Re and Osiris is included in the illustration of the Book of the Dead spell 109, where the sun is called a "newborn calf" in the tomb of Arinefer (TT290). As a migratory bird, Re visits the netherworld each night and, like all of the dead, becomes as he is called in the concluding text of the Great Litany, a cavern dweller. Afterwards, the deceased speaks for the first time, indicating that he has a complete understanding of Re's nocturnal forms of manifestation, together with their names. He implores them to open the netherworld to him and his ba. This is one aspect of the Litany of Re that distinguishes it from the Books of the Netherworld, for in those compositions the deceased never speaks. In the Books of the Netherworld, the dialogue is always between the sun god and the inhabitants of the Beyond. After the Great Litany, the second litany follows with the inhabitants of the netherworld, who are commanded to prepare the way for the dead as they follow Re. Interrupted by only an invocation to the nocturnal sun, "who shines among those in the netherworld", the third litany adds, "May you lead me to the ways of the West:". This leads into the first equations of the deceased, first with Nun and then with Re, his ba and his cycle. On the ceiling the text that follows invokes the United One and equates the dead with his ba and corpse. Hence, this is a very important section of the composition because of the way it is inserted as well as its content. Here, there is a remark about recitation that makes reference to the forms of the gods and to the offerings they require. Next, the deceased king presents a speech addressed to them as the "gods who are in the West". He tells them that "I am one of you", and thereafter identifies himself with the sun god with whom he shares the triumph "over all his enemies in the sky and on earth". Afterwards, the short fourth litany consisting of three double verses wherein Osiris is also addressed. Here, Re and Osiris greet and extend their hands to one another. Through the power of his ba, Re displaces the darkness allowing the netherworld to see as the deceased also seeks the renewal of his eyes and the return of his heart. The fifth litany consists of eight double verses. Here, "You have commanded for me, as (for) Akhty", is a general evocation of the care of the god. Afterwards, there is a prayer asking for deliverance from the slaughterers in the netherworld, including their cauldrons, their traps and their ovens, because "I am Re". After a depiction of the majestic appearance of the god as ba with the request, "Oh Re, come to me, oh guide" and some further identifications and dialogues with the "weary of heart" in the netherworld, there is the sixth litany containing fifteen double verses Here, we find the representation of a pelican goddess, perhaps representing the embodiment of Nut, the goddess of Heaven, who is suppose to care for the deceased. Now the deceased makes his appearance in all the splendor of the sun god. Five double verses make up the seventh litany where, "Truly you have caused me to ascend" is followed by the "Member Apotheosis". In this litany, the dead king's limbs are deified as every part of his body is equated with a god, allowing the deceased to become "entirely a god". Afterwards, the king also appears as the god's son and receives commands from him. Now, in a double role as Re and Osiris, he turns to those who dwell in the netherworld, those who are "provided with offerings", and this section ends with the rejoicing of the eighth litany, "hail, well led...". The composition ends with a prayer to the realm of the dead as the "West" in the ninth litany where there is a final identification of the deceased king as Re. Towards the end there is an old formula where the ba belongs to the sky and the corpse to the earth, with the additional phrase "among the gods".
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The Judgement of the Dead
Among the obstacles that could stand in the way of reunion of ba and ka, and resurrection, the most important was the Judgement of the Dead. We know of the Judgement mostly from one of the latest and most popular collections of spells known as the Book of the Dead, which became the standard for funerary literature from the 18th Dynasty until the end of ancient Egyptian civilization. Especially from spell 125 of the Book of the Dead, we learn about the final judgement.
A scene from the the Book of the Dead depicts the Judgement of the Dead. Anubis watches the scales; on the right, Thoth records the results; Amemet, next to Anubis, waits to eat sinful hearts. In the scales are shown the deceased's heart on left, and the feather of Maat on the right.
The deceased's ba, we are told, is summoned in to the "Hall of Two Truths" (or of the two Maat goddesses), where the judgement is to take place. There the deceased was usually joined by Anubis, the god of embalming,who ushered him or her into the hall where he would first greet Re and his nine gods,
or Osiris and his forty-two messengers, reciting to them "I know you, I know your names." From there the heart of the deceased was placed on one side of a balance. The heart was special to the ancient Egyptians: it was considered the center of a person's personality, and it provided a link between one's life in this world and the next - it would assure memory of ones earthly identity in the afterlife. So important was it that the Egyptians took special care that the heart be left in the body of the deceased, along with a spell from the Book of the Dead to give the heart back to the dead in the afterlife. (This unlike the brain, which was extracted and discarded.) On the other side of the balance was placed a feather, symbol of Maat, goddess of truth, justice and order.
The deceased then would begin immediately reciting a formula called the Negative Confession, part of which is shown below:
I have not done falsehood against men.
I have not impoverished my associates.
I have done no wrong in the Place of Truth.
I have not learnt that which is not.
I have done no evil.
I have not made people labor daily in excess of what was due to be done for me ...
The statements in the confession corresponded with the desire to separate one from his sins, the ultimate goal of the judgement. What's more, the statements reflect that the confessor is not being made to answer to moral laws of the gods,
but to attest to his previous social character among the living. As the confession was recited, the scales of the balance would either stay in equilibrium, indicating that his heart was not heavy and he thus told the truth, or would tip, indicating that his heart was made heavy with falsehood.Anubis would be present to verify the results and bring the scales in balance, and also to reassure the confessor, since Anubis, who presided over mummification, was presumed to have much knowledge about he dead. Thoth, the god of the written word, would record the results. Additionally, the deceased who was prepared for the judgement would have also spoken to his heart from spell 30b of the Book of the Dead:
O my heart which I had from my mother!
O my heart which I had from my mother!
O my heart of my different ages!
Do not stand up as a witness against me.
do not be opposed to me in the tribunal,
do not be hostile to me in the presence of
the keeper of the Balance ...
Assuming all went well, as it usually did if one made it to the Hall of Two Truths, a general verdict would be given in which the truthfulness of the judged is validated, and he is allowed to receive offerings and take bread with Osiris, confirming his transfer to the order of the afterlife, and is given a parcel of land on which to live eternally.
The principle value in achieving this eternal extension of one's life in the next world is the promise it holds in fulfilling one's life begun on earth. Those who were debilitated in life by crippling diseases, or who suffered from poverty, or those women who were unable to bear children, would be given an opportunity to fulfill their desires in a new place where those obstacles were now removed. The dream of an ideal life held on earth could now be realized.
The ancient Egyptians believed that death was the end of physical life in this world. But they also believed that through death one could be renewed and live an eternal life free from the physical limitations of age or poverty, just as the god Osiris had, who was also once a mortal human. One's renewal didn't come about in this world, though. Renewal came about in the mysterious underworld of the primeval waters, known as "Nun."
The Underworld was seperate from this world. One could not see it or get to it by normal means, though. The Underworld could be reached only through your imagination, and through your knowledge of the path of the sun.
Ba returning to the tomb.
The ancient Egyptians believed that the sun moved around the Earth. During the day, it traveled from the eastern to the western horizon. After setting in the west, they believed the sun descended into the Underworld and traveled under the earth until it came up again in the east. For this reason, the Underworld is sometimes called the "West."
It is down into this place under the earth, then, that the mummified dead go when they die. The mummy's tomb was identified with this Underworld, where the mummy remained motionless while its ba traveled freely throughout the mysterious spaces seeking to unite with its ka.
Paintings on the tomb walls and on the coffin usually showed depictions of this other world. The Underworld was a strange and mysterious place. The dead, in fact, were often called "those whose place is hidden or mysterious;" as mummies,they were said to sink into this place which was endless, dark, and chaotic. It was believed that the Underworld was seperated from the real world by a wide stream, and that a great river also flowed through it. There was water, plants and trees in the Underworld as well, where the dead, once they achieved resurrection, would grow crops to live on. This region of the Underworld is sometimes called the Ealu-fields.
From the tomb of Sen-Nedjem (20th Dynasty, 1186-1070 BC), a depiction of Sen-Nedjem and his wife in the fields of Iaru. According to the book of Amduat, the Underworld was divided into twelve departments, or hours, and twelve portals that represent the twelve hours of night between the time that the sun sets in the west, and the time it comes up again in the east. But time in the Underworld is not the same as time on Earth. Each hour in the Underworld represents an entire lifetime.
The sun god, Ra, travels in his boat on the great river, bringing order and life to each department in turn. Along the way his boat may come across the sandbank of Apophis, a monster of chaos in the shape of a giant serpent and the enemy of Ra, who attempts to wreck Ra's boat.
Ra on his barge
O gods who are in the Underworld,
who are behind the ruler of the West,
who are stretched n their side,
who are sleeping on their supports,
raise your flesh,
pull together your bones,
collect your limbs,
unite your flesh.
May there be sweet breath to your noses.
Loosing for your mummy wrappings.
May your head-masks be uncovered.
May there be light for your divine eyes
in order that you may see the light by means of them.
Stand up from your weariness.
But Ra is defended by several gods and goddesses who ride with him and do battle with Apophis.
As Ra comes to the portal of each department, the gates open automatically for him. When he enters he shines sunlight on the darkness and speaks magic words from the Book of Gates (left), and all the mummies throw off their protective wrappings and begin a new life.
The resurrected live an entire life as long as Ra remains in their department. When Ra goes on to the next department, the mummies re-wrap themselves in their bandages and return to their tombs, darkness returns, and they begin the wait for Ra's next return.
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Lesson 13 Eyyptology
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