Wolf Society

Wolves are extremely sociable creatures. Many live in a close-knit, loving family group, or pack. In each pack there is a leader called the alpha wolf. (Frequently the alpha is a male, but wolves have as many personality differences as people, and some packs have a female alpha.) All the pack members defer to the alpha, who is assisted by his (or her) mate.

The second in command is called the beta wolf. There can be a third and a fourth, and a fifth -- it depends on the size of the pack. The important thing is that every single wolf knows where it is on the chain of command. All females are subservient to the alpha female (as all males are subservient to the alpha male). There isn't a "beta pair" the way there is an "alpha pair" because it's rare for any wolves besides the alphas to mate. The alpha will even stop any other wolves from breeding! That may seem unfair to the other pack members, but it makes sense. The alphas are the leaders because they are the fastest, strongest, and cleverest in the pack. If the two most powerful animals mate, the pups will inherit these important genetic traits. That's good news for the pack.

But not every wolf can stand to be an "underdog." Occasionally one will choose to wander away from its pack and become a loner. A single wolf can wander and hunt on its own for two or three years -- sometimes even longer. Because wolves are so sociable, the chances are good that eventually the loner will band together with other solo wolves or will become a member of another pack.

Intelligence

Few things are more effective in hunting than working cooperatively. There are many species that hunt in groups -- lionesses work together on the African veldt to bring down large prey, and orcas are so skilled at hunting in groups that we tend to view them as "killer" whales. One of the most fascinating and complex examples of cooperative hunting is found in the wolf pack.

When they hunt, wolves display much more than simple instinct. Their techniques are so skillful that the level of intelligence is surprising. Their pack society is largely built around the most efficient hunting team, where every member knows its place and obeys the leader instantly and without question. Obedience is necessary because the alpha does issue orders. He (or she) assigns teams of wolves to run down a prey animal -- then, the alpha sends in relief runners so the chase team can catch its breath. A well-conducted hunt can ensure that all the wolves will be fresh and ready for the kill by the time the prey is exhausted and without resource.

The remarkable analysis of a prey herd is another example of a wolf's exceptional intelligence. Researchers initially suspected that wolves weren't very efficient hunters, as they often started to chase a prey hard eight or nine times before they ever made a kill. Actually, the reverse is true -- those eight or nine "false alarms" are made so the wolf pack can observe the prey herd in motion. The wolf pack takes in the sights, smells, and sounds of the fleeing beasts, analyzes the information, and sums up the chances for a successful hunt in seconds. If an animal appears weak, ill, very young, or very old, the pack continues the chase -- almost always successfully. But if the prey herd is strong, with no "weak links," the wolves break off the hunt immediately rather than waste precious energy.

Coloration

Although they are called gray wolves, these creatures are not always gray. Coat colors can range from snowy white to inky black. If there were a "classic" gray wolf, it would probably have a grizzled gray back and head, fading to a buff or tan belly and legs. The muzzle is light underneath, and a dark stripe comes down from the forehead along the nose.

Brothers and sisters from the very same litter may be very different in color. Wolves have a slight advantage during night hunts, when their darkness blends into shadows and they can be even more stealthful than their lighter packmates. Far to the north in the Arctic Circle, pure white wolves are common. In a land where the sun does not set for a month at a time, a dark coat would be a definite disadvantage. Any dark-furred wolves that lived in the area would not be very successful hunters, and so would probably not become the leader (or alpha) of a pack. Since only the alpha pair mates, the genes that cause a darker coat would eventually be bred out of the entire population. Today, almost all wolves in the Arctic Circle are white.

Every region where wolves are found has a different name for the wolf. In various parts of the country, they are called timber wolves, arctic wolves, northern, scrub, buffalo, and eastern wolves. A subspecies in the Southwest is called the Mexican wolf. Regardless of their local names -- and regardless of their color -- they are all gray wolves. The only exception in North America is an entirely different species, the red wolf. True to form, red wolves aren't always red.

The Senses

Most humans are entirely oriented to the world through vision. For us, sight is everything, and the senses of smell and sound are types of back-up systems. We aren't alone in the animal kingdom -- birds of prey, for example are visually oriented as well. An eagle can see the almost imperceptible movements of a rabbit hundreds of feet below, or a fish swimming in a mountain lake. But for many creatures, sight is a secondary sense. For wolves, it's actually number three.

Wolves live in a world of sound and smell. Vision merely confirms what they already know. During a chase, vision is important so the wolf can follow a prey animal through quick changes of direction. but when the prey is farther away, vision is less useful than the primary senses of hearing and smell. biologists have reason to believe that wolves can't see clearly past about 75 feet -- beyond that point, detail is lost and only movement will draw any attention. At that distance, if a prey animal simply stands still, it becomes invisible to the wolf.

This won't do the prey animal any good, though, unless it is also downwind of the wolf -- remember the wolf's best senses are hearing and smell. The slightest breeze can carry a scent that would alert the wolf to the "invisible" prey, and any sound at all would be captured by the alert ears. Wolves can hear each other howling from miles away when humans can only hear silence, and wolves use their sense of smell (among other things) to decide if any member of a herd of prey animals is injured or sick. They define their territories, recognize their prey, and identify pack members by smell.

The Pecking Order

The transition from newborn to adult is as hard for wolves as it is for people. A juvenile wolf is as tall as its parents, but the body hasn't filled out yet, making the long legs look awkward and gangly. Every adult in the pack treats the juvenile like an underling -- the most junior member of a very efficient team. The only satisfaction a juvenile gets is lording it over the next litter of pups.

Each juvenile goes through a sort of "apprenticeship" as part of the hunting team. The alpha assigns the young wolf to the least important (and least dangerous) posts on a hunt, where the juvenile can watch its elders and learn from their successes and failures. It takes time to move up in the ranks.

Not every juvenile learns to hunt right away. Each wolf pack assigns a "babysitter" to the newest litter of pups. Naturally, a teenager gets the job. When the rest of the pack takes off on a hunt, the babysitter is left in charge. It isn't an easy job, as wolf pups are terribly curious about everything and do their best to get into a great deal of mischief. Typically, the juvenile is a stern caretaker -- after all, this is his or her only chance to be the top dog. But, being just one year away from the playful days of puppyhood, it isn't unusual for the "stern" babysitter to eventually join in a playful frolic with younger brothers and sisters.

The Pups

A wolf pup leads a wonderful life. The pups are the focus of every pack. Their mothers and fathers are devoted parents, and every other member of the pack considers itself an aunt or uncle, regardless of relations. the pack treats the pups with indulgent affection. All they have to do is play, sleep, and eat.

Of course, there's more to it than that. Even though each game a pup plays just seems like fun -- in reality, every pounce on a brother or sister, every leaf chased down a hill, every curious sniff of the wind is training for the rigorous life ahead (when quickness, intelligence, and keen senses will make the difference between a failed hunt and a full stomach). A pup's idea of a good meal isn't the same as ours. Because pups can't hunt, they rely on their elders to bring food back to the den. The pups beg for their dinner by nipping at the muzzles of their aunts and uncles, and the loving adults regurgitate the meat. Not very appetizing to us, but everything a wolf pup could hope for.

The pups leave the den for the first time at about three weeks of age. (They are greeted by joyful pack members, eager to meet the newest members.) Almost from the beginning, a litter will establish a pecking order similar to that of the adults. One pup becomes the leader (sort of an alpha-pup) that dominates the others. The ability to dominate tends to hold true; an alpha-pup is much more likely to lead a pack one day than the pups that willingly submit to their more forceful brothers or sisters.

Body Language

Wolves communicate in many different ways. Vocally, they bark, growl, yip, and grunt. Their powerful howls are effective for long distance communications. They leave -- and read -- scent messages. And they communicate with body language. The alpha wolf has a bold, upright stance. He carries his tail in a relaxed curve and he holds his head high. Underlings defer to him by holding their heads low and keeping their tails down. They crouch and wag their tails hopefully. They are subservient to him and show it even in their posture. It's very confrontational to look directly at the alpha, so his pack never faces him outright. Instead they glance shyly at the leader from the side.

The pack begs for attention from the leader by nipping gently at his muzzle. A lesser wolf will lie down before the alpha and roll over to expose its belly. This is a gesture of trust and loyalty, as the belly is the wolf's most vulnerable area. If the alpha is angered, he will crouch over the reclining offender, stare eye to eye, draw back the lips to show a mouthful of strong teeth, and utter a rumbling, terrifying growl. That's usually as much as it takes to keep the pack in line; wolves very rarely resort to actual violence within the group. This declaration of status by body language works not only for the alpha, but for all pack members. Each wolf can prove its authority over a lesser wolf, or subservience to a greater wolf, by body language.

The wolf and the dog are different animals, but dogs and wolves share some of the same behaviors. If you are threatened by a strange dog, remember that staring directly at the dog will be perceived as a challenge. Something as small as that could provoke a dog to attack.

Territories

In the summer, when the pups are too small to be moved frequently, the wolf pack has a small home range. Usually, a hunting group will leave the den area at sunset and return around sunrise. The den is the center of the wolf pack's life because the pups are a constant magnet -- each member is concerned for the pups' safety and happiness. When an afternoon's rest overtakes the adults, they are usually found snoozing near the den, available at the faintest yip of puppy alarm.

In summer, when food is plentiful, a home range is comparatively small -- even less than fifteen square miles for a small pack. In winter, food is harder to find and the pack must spend more time searching for prey. By that time the pups have grown enough to travel over many miles, covering as much as 125 miles in one day. (Wolves can sprint up to 30 miles an hour during a chase but can trot at about five miles an hour almost indefinitely.) During winter, the home ranges can be enormous. One pack in Alaska maintained a winter home range of several thousand square miles. The range size depends on the available prey, the size of the pack, and the number of wolf packs in the region.

Wolves from differing packs prefer to avoid each other, so buffer zones tend to emerge between one home range and another. When a wolf chooses to leave the pack, it can travel phenomenal distances to establish its own home range -- or it can take up residence in a buffer zone. While the buffer zone is the easier choice, the lone wolf is constantly subjected to being chased off by not one but two packs, each defending its territory.