The Wakan Circle

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ACERACEAE (MAPLE FAMILY)

Red Maple (Acer rubrum L.) "cicigîme'-wîc" [red maple]. The inner bark of the red maple is boiled and used as an eyewash. Pammel mentions the same thing in his treatise on poisonous plants,33 so that it appears that this use by the Indians is fairly widespread. Among the whites,34 a solution of the inner bark is astringent and ophthalmic.

Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.)35 "kisinamî'c" [cold tree or timber]. The inner bark of the sugar maple is used as an expectorant. This bark yields an infusion which is accounted tonic, anthelmintic, and ophthalmic, by the white man.36

Mountain Maple (Acer spicatum Lam.), "caca'gobimîc" [soft wood]. The inner bark is employed with other medicinal materials to make a combination syrup for coughs. The National Dispensatory says37 the bark very closely resembles Viburnum Opulus and is entirely substituted for it. The bark extract has been used by the white man as an antispasmodic in asthma, hysteria, puerperal convulsions and dysmenorrhoea. Among the whites,38 the bark extract is considered ophthalmic and diuretic.

ALISMACEAE (WATER-PLANTAIN FAMILY)

Broad-leaved Arrowhead (Sagittaria latifolia Willd.)39 "wabasi'-binik" [white potato]. The starchy corms that are produced on short lateral rootlets of this plant are pounded into a pulp. The pulp is used for poulticing wounds and sores. Among the whites,40 the root is considered refrigerant, astringent and detergent, cooling the body and exerting a cleansing action upon wounds, boils and ulcers. Lyons41 says that the California Indians also used these corms under the name "wappate" or "wapatoo".

ANACARDIACEAE (SUMAC FAMILY)

Poison Ivy (Rhus Toxicodendron L.) "makaki'bag" [toad weed]. The Forest Potawatomi consider this plant to be poisonous, as do the whites. Even the eclectic practitioners who formerly used it have abandoned it because they did not get good results from it. However the Prairie Potawatomi, according to John Macintosh42 know it under the name "tatapa'kwe" [climbs trees] and-say that only the most skillful medicine men know how to use it. They pound the root to make a poultice and place it upon a swelling to cause it to open.

Staghorn Sumac (Rhus typhina L.)43 "bakwanimî'c" [puckering? bush]. Most of our Wisconsin Indian tribes make use of the staghorn sumac for medicine and use various parts of the shrub. The root, bark and leaves all are medicines. The root bark is used as a hemostatic. The leaves are steeped to make a tea, used in gargling for sore throat, tonsilitis and erysipelas. The berries are used to make a medicinal tea. They are also often mixed with other plant medicines to expel worms. It is quite likely that the abundant hairs upon the fruit, irritate the stomach lining and cause worms to be expelled. Among the whites,44 the bark and leaves are considered tonic, astringent, and antiseptic, while the fruit is diuretic, refrigerant and acidulous.

APOCYNACEAE (DOGBANE FAMILY)

Spreading Dogbane (Apocynum androsaemifolium L.)45 "dodoca'-bowûng" [woman's breast weed]. This is the usual term used by the Forest Potawatomi, but it is also called "magosä'sîngä'sikîk" [awl-shaped], according to Mrs. Spoon. This same plant was known among the Prairie Potawatomi as "makosä'kasêkûk" which is almost the same term that Mrs. Spoon employs. The majority of the Forest Potawatomi used the root of Spreading Dogbane as a diuretic and urinary medicine, although Mrs. Spoon and the Prairie Potawatomi informant called it a heart and kidney medicine and used the green fruits, which they boiled to extract the active principle. Nickell46 says that this plant has similar properties to the official Apocynum cannabinum L., which is used as a diuretic and in cardiac and renal dropsy. The root extract has been used among white men as an emetic, cathartic, sudorific and expectorant.

AQUIFOLIACEAE (HOLLY FAMILY)

Mountain Holly (Nemopanthus mucronata [L.] Trel.),

"sakwa'kmînagawîc" or "bosakwa'komînaga'wîc" [plum? bush]. We find two species of the Holly Family native to Wisconsin, the Winterberry (Ilex verticillata [L.] Gray), which is a true species of Holly and the Mountain Holly, which is the species that the Forest Potawatomi use. Small branches of the Mountain Holly are cooked. The resulting liquid is again boiled until it resembles a syrup and this syrup is used as a tonic. Mrs. Spoon named this species as one of the fifty that she used to combine and boil down as a syrup which became a sort of "shot-gun prescription" for many different kinds of diseases. She did not enumerate all of the fifty kinds that went into the medicine but they must have been varied enough to cure almost any ill to which the human flesh is heir. Among the whites,47 the uses of Mountain Holly are divided into two classes; the bark of the shrub is tonic, bitter, alterative, febrifuge and astringent. The fruit is used as a cathartic and a vermifuge.

ARACEAE (ARUM FAMILY)

Sweet Flag (Acorus Calamus L.) "wike" [flag]. This plant was known to the Prairie Potawatomi as "sinipisi'-wun". Sweet Flag is not common at all in Forest County and it required several trips to discover a supply of it. It is a valued medicine and used for various ailments. The dried root is powdered and snuffed up the nose to cure catarrh. It is also one of the ingredients of a remedy to stop a hemorrhage. The formula for this remedy is—chips of the heartwood from a four-inch Ironwood (Ostrya virginiana [Mill.] K. Koch); the heartwood chips of a four-inch Arbor Vitae (Thuja occidentalis L.); root of the Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus L.) ; and a handful of the root bark of the common Shining Willow (Salix lucida Muhl.). These materials are placed in a vessel covered with two quarts of water, which is boiled down to a pint. One tablespoonful of this mixture is taken every hour until the hemorrhage stops. This is one of the very bitterest medicines that the Forest Potawatomi have and is described as being as bitter as gall. Many of the Indians in speaking of this remedy are inclined to be cautious in the amount used and say that only a very small piece of the root is necessary. Among the whites it has always been considered that any amount of the dried root might be used to relieve dyspepsia. It was formerly used by the whites48 as a mild stimulant and tonic, used in the treatment of flatulent colic and atonic dyspepsia and said to be beneficial in typhoid fever as a stimulant. Nickell49 cites its properties as aromatic, carminative, tonic and vulnerary. The Herbalist50 claims that it improves the gastric juice and removes gases and sourness. The fact is cited that it has been used in chlorosis, dropsy, scurvy, gout, lameness and fevers.

Water Arum (Calla palustris L.) "wabasi'pîni'bag" [white potato leaf or swan potato root]. The Forest Potawatomi find that the root of the Water Arum when pounded and applied as a poultice to swellings, is very efficacious in reducing them. Nickell51 says that it has been used by the whites as a stimulant, caustic and for its mucilaginous qualities.

ARALIACEAE (GINSENG FAMILY)

Bristly Sarsaparilla (Aralia hispida Vent.) "babîkwe'wûnûskûns" [little flute stem]. This medicine seems to be known only to Mrs. Spoon and she said that the root is used as an alterative and tonic, that it is nowhere common in Forest County and most of the other Indians consulted had never noticed the difference between this species and Wild Sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis L.). Among the white men52 the leaves have been used as a sudorific while the root possesses properties that are emetic, hydrogogue and alterative.

The National Dispensatory53 speaks of the value of Bristly Sarsaparilla for the aromatic properties resident in its root. Lyons54 records that the bark of this species has been used as a diuretic and alterative.

Wild Sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis L.) "okadag" [leg]. This is a valued root among the Forest Potawatomi and they pound it into a mass to be used as a poultice to reduce swelling and cure infections. It is also said to have the same properties and use as Spikenard (Aralia racemosa L.),55 namely, stimulant, diaphoretic and alterative. Pammel56 records that it has been used for its aromatic and stimulating properties.

Indian Spikenard (Aralia racemosa L.)57 "okadag" [leg]. The Forest Potawatomi pound the root into a pulp to be used as a hot poultice on inflammations. It is interesting to note the use of this root among the different tribes. The Menomini use it in cases of blood poisoning while the Meskwaki use the root as a seasoner for other medicines.

Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.) "gisêns". This pronunciation is undoubtedly the attempt of the Forest Potawatomi to give the plant the English common name since other tribes have a regular Indian word for Ginseng. The Prairie Potawatomi call Ginseng "wenane" [calf of the leg]. However, the Forest Potawatomi make extensive use of the Ginseng root for medicine, whereas some of the other tribes do not use it at all, but only gather it to sell. Ginseng has very little medicinal virtue, according to the white man and the fact that it is so high priced is due to the Chinese demand for this root. They are particularly interested in Ginseng root that has the appearance of the human torso and use it as a fetish. It is interesting to note that the Chinese also use Ginseng as a medicine, supposing it to have a certain virtue that renders their other medicines powerful. We have even discovered its use as a season in some of their pills given to a Chinese patient in the Milwaukee Hospital who was recovering from a premature stillbirth. Chinese people have also told us that the Ginseng is regarded as a cure-all and a necessity in many medicines of their making. The Forest Potawatomi pound the root to make a poultice to cure earache and soak the pounded root to obtain a wash for curing sore eyes. They also used it in many of their powdered medicines as a season to mask the had flavor of some other ingredients.

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE (BIRTHWORT FAMILY)

Wild Ginger (Asarum canadense L.)58 "ba'boan" [its name], "nîme'bîn" is another Forest Potawatomi term for it. The Prairie Potawatomi calls it "kupua" [ginger]. The Forest Potawatomi use Wild Ginger as a mild stomachic principally to flavor meat or fish and render them more edible. In the National Dispensatory59 it is also called the Canada Snakeroot and is a feeble remedy accounted tonic, aromatic and slightly diuretic. It has been used by eclectic practitioners in convalescence from acute febrile infections. Nickell60 states that it has aromatic, stimulant, diaphoretic, carminative and expectorant qualities, while the Herbalist61 states that it has been used in the treatment of colds, colic, amenorrhoea and pains in the stomach.

ASCLEPIADACEAE (MILKWEED FAMILY)

Common Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca L.)62 "anˆrni'wîc" [man weed]. The root of the Common Milkweed is used by the Forest Potawatomi as a medicine, but we were unable to find out for what ailments. Among the whites we have several references to its use. Nickell63 records it as having tonic, diuretic, alterative, purgative and emetic qualities. The National Dispensatory64 says that it has been used as a vulnerary, while the milky juice has been used to cure warts. Lyons65 records that the roots have a diuretic, diaphoretic and sedative quality.

BALSAMINACEAE (TOUCH-ME-NOT FAMILY)

Spotted Touch-me-not (Impatiens biflora, Walt.)66 "twatubîgo'-nîak [touch-me-not]. The Prairie Potawatomi call this "wasawa'shiak" [yellow slippery]. This is accounted a valuable medicine among the Forest Potawatomi who use the fresh juice of the plant to wash nettle stings or poison ivy infections. The writer knows that it instantly alleviates the sting of the Stinging Nettle and has it from the Indians that it will cure and alleviate the itching of Poison Ivy. An infusion of the whole plant is drunk to cure colds in the chest or cramps in the stomach. The Potawatomi also boil the infusion of the plant down to a thicker mass which they use as a liniment for treating sprains, bruises and soreness. Nickell67 records the properties of the plant as diuretic, emetic and alterative.

BERBERIDACEAE (BARBERRY FAMILY)

Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides [L.] Michx.)68 "otci'-komînaga'wîc" [fisher plant]. Another Forest Potawatomi term for this is "ano'mînûm" [?berry]. This is known to the Forest Potawatomi as the Squaw Root and it seems to be of rather universal use among all of our Indian tribes to furnish a tea which suppresses profuse menstruation and aids in childbirth. Among the eclectic practitioners of the whites, it has been used in cases of hysteria and uterine diseases. The eclectics claim that it prevents abortions by causing uterine contraction when uterine inertia is present.69 The Herbalist70 ascribed to it the properties of an emmenagogue, parturient, anti-spasmodic, diuretic, diaphoretic, and anthelminthic. They say that it is used in chronic uterine diseases.

BETULACEAE (BIRCH FAMILY)

Speckled Alder (Alnus incana [L.] Moench) "atob" [bitter]. The Potawatomi scrape the inner bark of the Speckled Alder and use the juice obtained to rub on the body to cure the itch. A bark tea is made for flushing the vagina and to make a rectal application with their home-made form of syringe as described previously, to shrivel the anal muscles and thus cure cases of piles. Potions of the bark tea are also drunk to cure the flux. The powdered inner bark of the Speckled Alder is used to sprinkle upon galled spots of their ponies to cure them. Nickell71 says that the bark has alterative, emetic and astringent properties. The Herbalist72 says that the bark has been used in the treatment of scrofula and has been considered as alterative and emetic.

Paper Birch (Betula alba L. var. papyrifera [Marsh.] Spach) "wîgwa'samîc" [wigwam tree]. The wintergreen or Sweet Birch (Betula lenta) is not found in Wisconsin, but the twigs of the Paper Birch are sweet and aromatic, somewhat the same as the Sweet Birch. The Forest Potawatomi gather the twigs and put them to soak to extract the fragrant oil which is used to season other medicines, or to mask disagreeable flavors. The National Dispensatory73 says that the leaves are diuretic. Nickell74 says that the twigs have astringent and bitter principles while the oil is fragrant.

Yellow Birch (Betula lutea Michx. f.) "wînîsi'k" or "wînîsa'tîk" [wood smells]. The twigs of the Yellow Birch are also aromatic as are the twigs of the white and the Sweet Birch and these twigs are also gathered by the Forest Potawatomi to extract the fragrant oil which is used as a seasoner for other less pleasant medicines. We have found no record of its use by white men.

Beaked Hazelnut (Corylus rostrata Ait.) "cîkane'samîc" according to Indian George and ‘Snabe Jim. "cîkana'- sîmînaga'wîc" according to Mrs. Spoon. This is the only species of Hazelnut found in Forest County and the Potawatomi use the inner bark in medicinal combinations very much the same as they use the inner bark of the willow. It is used as an astringent. The National Dispensatory75 records the fact that eclectic practitioners use the spicula or sharp points of the involucre as an anthelmintic, to expel worms from the intestines.

This practice would be considered rather dangerous by the physician of today because it might set up too much irritation in the intestines.

Hop Hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana [Mill.] K. Koch) "mîanoo's" [hornbeam]. The Potawatomi consider this as one of their so-called cramp barks and infusions of it are used to cure the flux. Nickell76 says that the bark is a simple bitter, tonic, antiperiodic, and alterative. The Dispensatory77 says that the heartwood and the bark possess a bitter substance that has been used at times as a substitute for quassia and has been used as an astringent. The Herbalist78 says that eclectic practitioners have used it as an antiperiodic, tonic, and alterative. It is supposed to be of value in the treatment of intermittent fevers, neuralgia, nervous debility, scrofula, and dyspepsia. It has also been used in the treatment of fever and ague.

BORAGINACEAE (BORAGE FAMILY)

Common Hound's Tongue (Cynoglossum officinale L.), " boe" [stickers]. This is one of the plants that the Forest Potawatomi assert came into their country from the south and so they do not know it as a medicinal plant and it is not used. However, Nickell79 reports that it has the following medicinal properties: it is astringent, aromatic, anodyne, mucilaginous, and narcotic.

CAMPANULACEAE (BELLFLOWER FAMILY)

Marsh Bellflower (Campanula aparinoides Pursh.) "basi'bagûk"

[small vine]. This species is not used by the Forest Potawatomi although the white man has made use of it as an emetic, a pectoral, and for ornamental purposes, according to Nickell.80

CAPRIFOLIACEAE (HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY)

Bush Honeysuckle (Diervilla Lonicera Mill.) "osawoskwoni'is" [yellow liquid]. The Bush Honeysuckle is used by many of our Indian tribes of the north and is especially valuable, according to them, in urinary troubles. The Prairie Potawatomi make a tea from the root of the Bush Honeysuckle to be used as a diuretic and for the treatment of cases of gonorrhoea. Mrs. Spoon makes a medicine for vertigo in which this, the Bush Honeysuckle, is used. Her recipe for the medicine is Red Baneberry root (Actaea rubra), the twigs of (Diervilla Lonicera), the leaves and root of Liverleaf Hepatica (Hepatica triloba), and the roots of Sweet Cicely (Osmorhiza longistylis). The writer saw her mix this material in her wooden mixing bowl about four inches in diameter with a wooden spoon and afterward he tasted the infusion which had a sweetish taste. Nickell81 states that the root, leaves and twigs have been found to be medicinal and used by eclectic practitioners as a diuretic, astringent and alterative. The National Dispensatory82 says that the whole plant is considered diuretic and has been applied to relieve itching.

Twinflower (Linnaea borealis L. var. americana [Forbes] Rehder) "bîne'obûkûns" [partridge weed]. Mrs. Spoon used the entire plant of this as a squaw medicine, although just what type of female trouble it was supposed to cure was not plainly explained. Among the white men, the plant has been used as a bitter, a sub-astringent and an antirheumatic, according to Nickell.83

American Fly Honeysuckle (Lonicera canadensis Marsh.) "îaî'ankûtci'mînaga'wîc" [berries of two sexes,�?bush]. The Forest Potawatomi combine the bark of this species with Juniper foliage and berries and with the twigs of the Bush Honeysuckle ( Diervilla Lonicera) to make a "tea" which is used as a diuretic. The National Dispensatory84 states that only the fruits are medicinal and that they are nonofficial as drugs. They have been reported as being emetic and cathartic.

Red-berried Elder (Sambucus racemosa L.) "babackisi'ganatîk" [popgun wood]. Mrs. Spoon calls this "tcabosî'kûn" [physic]. The Prairie Potawatomi call it "papasikana'tîk" [popgun wood]. The inner bark of the Red-berried Elder is accounted the most powerful physic which the Forest Potawatomi have and it is used in the same manner as the Menomini Indians use it. There is no questioning its drastic action, but the method of its use shows considerable superstition connected with it. Four joints of the stem are chosen, of half an inch diameter or greater. The proper length is measured from the point of the ulna to the point of the humerus. If these joints are peeled downward and the bark steeped in warm water, the resulting cup of fluid becomes a very quick-acting purgative. However, should the same sticks have been peeled upward and the resulting "tea" drunk, then it would have been a strong emetic. The white man is apt to discover that this powerful remedy works both ways at once. The National Dispensatory85 says that the bark is a poison and has been know to cause death. Nickell86 says that medicines have been made from the inner bark of the Red-berried Elder that cause watery evacuations and are believed capable of expelling serum. It has been used to increase evacuation from the bowels and also has been used to produce vomiting.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE (PINK FAMILY)

White Campion (Lychnis alba Mill.). The White Campion is commonly found in Forest County, but the Potawatomi have no name for it nor do they have a use for it as far as the writer discovered. We find no record of its use in eclectic practice by the white man.

CHENOPODIACEAE (GOOSEFOOT FAMILY)

Lamb's Quarters (Chenopodium album L.) "koko'cîbag" [pig leaf]. The Forest Potawatomi consider this a medicinal food which is used to cure or prevent scurvy. It has been used in exactly the same way by the white man according to Nickell.87

Strawberry Elite (Chenopodium capitatum [L.] Asch.) "'mêna'-kwoskûk" [stinking or scent weed]. The ripened heads of seed of the Strawberry Elite are deep pink in color and furnish the Indian maiden an ever-ready rouge. It is used to paint the cheeks when they are getting ready for a dream dance. This same juice is rubbed on the breast to cure congestion of the lungs while the whole plant is made into a medicinal "tea" to ease any congestion in the lungs. We find no record of its use by the whites.

Maple-leaved Goosefoot (Chenopodium hybridum L.). The Potawatomi have no name for this species nor any use as far as we have discovered and we find no record of its use by the whites.

COMPOSITAE (COMPOSITE FAMILY)

The Composite Family has the largest number of species of any plant family, and is well represented in Forest County. There are about four times as many medicines found among this family as in any other family represented in the Potawatomi territory.

Yarrow (Achillea Millefolium L.) "nokwe'sikûn" [perfume reviver]. The Prairie Potawatomi call it "kîshkatoa'soanûk" [flying squirrel tail]. The Forest Potawatomi place the flowers upon a plate of live coals to create a smudge which is used for two purposes. First, it is to keep any evil spirits away from the patient and second it is to give the proper sort of a scent to revive the patient who may be in a state of coma. The medicine man will sing while he fumigates the patient in a way to suggest that the patient will recover, making use of the power of suggestion as the whites were wont to do during the days of Dr. Coue. Yarrow has always been a home remedy among the whites, and especially among the German inhabitants, who call it "Schaf-esgarbetee", to break up a fever. Nickell88 records that the plant has astringent, alterative, diuretic, tonic, and vulnerary qualities. The Herbalist89 assigns to it the same qualities as Nickell and says that it has been used in decoctions to heal bleeding lungs or other hemorrhages, incontinence of urine, piles and dysentery. It has been used to promote regularity of menses, and made into an ointment to cure wounds, ulcers and fistulas. A decoction of the flowers has been used to stop the falling of hair. The leaves have been chewed to alleviate toothache.

Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.). According to the Forest Potawatomi this plant came into their country in historic times and they never knew what it was nor had any name nor use for it as far as we could discover. Among the whites, it has been used by eclectic practitioners in a decoction to cleanse wounds and as a poultice to allay inflammation, according to Nickell.90

Great Ragweed (Ambrosia trifida L.). The Great Ragweed is an adventiveplant according to the Forest Potawatomi and they have no use nor name for it as far as we could discover. Among the Meskwaki, it was chewed to drive away fear at night.91 Eclectic practitioners use the plant to extract a tea which was stimulant, astringent, and ophthalmic, according to Nickell.92

Pearly Everlasting (Anaphalis margaritacea [L.] B. & H.) "wewa'bîckûnakûk" [white top], "bäkwänä'sîkûn" [fumigator]. The Forest Potawatomi dry the flowers of this species and smoke it in a pipe or smudge it on coals to drive or keep evil spirits out of the room, which might prevent a patient from recovering. They also call attention to the fact that it smells like acorns, but there is no suggestion of this in the Potawatomi name, which it bears, as there has been in the language of other tribes. The Herbalists93 states that the plant is valuable for its astringent qualities. It has been used for fevers, quinsy, pulmonary and bronchial complaints. The patient has been recommended to chew the leaves in blossom to cure ulcers of the mouth and throat. An infusion of the flowers has been given through the rectum for the curing of bowel trouble. The poultice of the leaves has been used to heal bruises, indolent tumors, and local affections.

Dog Fennel (Anthemis Cotula L.) "waboskû'nakûk" [white top]. While the Potawatomi assign an Indian name to this plant, they claim that it is introduced and that they do not know any use for it as far as we have been able to discover. The National Dispensatory94 says that the plant has been called "chamomile" and has been used by eclectic practitioners for its stimulant and antispasmodic properties. It has been employed to check the summer diarrhea of children. In hot fomentation in water and vinegar, it has been used with success upon sluggish ulcers, earache and rheumatism

GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) Quack Grass (Agropyron repens [L.] Beauv.). This is considered an adventive plant by the Forest Potawatomi and they have no name or use for it to our knowledge. Among the whites,146 however, the root has been used for its diuretic and aperient properties. It has been employed in the treatment of dropsy. The Herbalist147 says that the root has diuretic, aperient, demulcent and vulnerary properties. Decoctions of the root have been used in treating cystitis, irritable bladder, gravel, jaundice, bronchitis, skin diseases and gout. It is said to relieve thirst, allay fever and promote urination. It has also been used as a blood purifier.

Squirrel-tail Grass (Hordeum jubatum L.) "mêmîcona'weak" [bushy-tail weed] and "mêmîcika'teak" [bushy-tail weed] according to Mrs. Spoon. She said that she employed the roots of this plant for medicine, but did not specify the particular kind of ailment. We have no record of its use by the whites.

HAMAMELIDACEAE (WITCH-HAZEL FAMILY)

Witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana L.)148 "bwaote'ît" [no heart wood, all white], "Paga'nîmîg" [witch-hazel], according to Simon Pokagon.149 This was one of the remedies that the Forest Potawatomi use in their sweat baths. They place the twigs in water and with hot rocks create steam which bathes sore muscles. A quarter century ago, Witch-hazel was highly esteemed by the whites and the bark and leaves were accounted astringent, tonic, anti-phlogistic and of value in the treatment of female complaints.150 The Herbalist151 says that the bark and leaves have tonic, astringent and sedative properties. Decoctions of the bark were used in the treatment of hemorrhages, as a diaphoretic, for dysentery and excessive mucous discharges. It has been used in the first stages of tuberculosis. The crushed bark has been used as an external poultice. A bark tea has been used in the treatment of sore mouth and for the treatment of piles.

HYPERICACEAE (ST. JOHN'S WORT FAMILY)

Marsh St. John's Wort (Hypericum virginicum L.) "wisa'gabag" [sweet leaf?]. The Forest Potawatomi claim that this plant contains three different kinds of medicine. In one of these the leaves are used to make a tea to cure fevers. Among the white people, this plant is considered to have aromatic astringent, resolvent and nervine properties.152 According to the Herbalist153 the top and flowers of the Marsh St. John's Wort are considered astringent, sedative and diuretic. The tea of the flowers suppresses urine, and is effective in chronic urinary affections, diarrhea, dysentery, jaundice, menorrhagia, hysteria, nervous affections, hemoptysis and other hemorrhages. Externally it has been used in a fomentation or used as an ointment to dispel hard tumors, caked breasts, bruises, etc.

IRIDACEAE (IRIS FAMILY)

Blue Flag (Iris versicolor L.)154 "pakwiasko'ns" [waterweed]. The Prairie Potawatomi call this "sênipa'sowûn". The Forest Potawatomi use the root of the Blue Flag to make poultices to allay inflammation. The root of Blue Flag was also used among the whites155 for its alterative, resolvent, sialogogic, laxative, diuretic, and vermifuge properties. According to the Herbalist156 the rhizome is accredited with alterative, cathartic, vermifuge and diuretic properties. In scrofula and syphilis it acts as a powerful and efficient agent and it has been employed in chronic liver, renal and splenetic affections. It is said to be best when combined with mandrakes, pokeberry, and black cohosh root.

JUGLANDACEAE (WALNUT FAMILY)

Butternut (Juglans cinerea L.)157 "baganak". The Potawatomi use this bark as a physic and drink infusions of the inner bark for its tonic effects. The Butternut is found commonly through the north while the Black Walnut only reaches the central part of Wisconsin. The Black Walnut has not been known to Wisconsin Indians for medicine. Among the whites, the bark has been used for its cathartic, alterative, tonic, anthelmintic, astringent, and cholagogue properties. 158 The Herbalist,159 states that the inner bark of the root and the leaves have been used by the whites to cure habitual constipation and intestinal diseases. Decoctions of the root bark have been used in fevers and also to cure murrain in cattle.

LABIATAE (MINT FAMILY)

Common Hemp Nettle (Galeopsis Tetrahit L.) "mena'kwûskûk" [plant smells good], or [mint plant]. Mrs. Spoon uses the whole plant to make a tea for the treatment of pulmonary troubles. Among the whites160 the whole plant has been used as an anti-spasmodic resolvent, and a detergent. The National Dispensatory161 says that this species is the principal ingredient of "Lieber's Consumption Herbs".

Bugle Weed (Lycopus uniflorus Michx.). The Forest Potawatomi consider this an adventive weed to their territory and therefore have no name or use for it to our knowledge. We have no record of its use by the whites.

Wild Mint (Mentha arvensis L. var. canadensis [L.] Briquet) "name'wîskons" [little sturgeon weed]. The Potawatomi use the leaves or the top of this plant for treating fevers and also make a stimulating tea for the curing of pleurisy. Among the whites162 the whole plant is used for its bitter, pungent, anti-spasmodic, and anti-rheumatic properties.

Wild Bergamot (Monarda fistulosa L.).163 Strangely enough the Forest Potawatomi have no name or use for this plant to our knowledge. This is rather surprising because the neighboring tribes all make use of it. It is used by the Menomini for the treatment of catarrh, by the Meskwaki for the treatment of colds and by the Ojibwe for the treatment of catarrh and bronchial affections. The National Dispensatory164 ascribes to the plant aromatic, stimulant, diaphoretic, and carminative properties. It has been used by eclectic practitioners in the treatment of flatulent colic, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea that has been caused from a cold.

Mad-dog Skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora L.)165 The Forest Pota-watomi did not know this plant and had no name or use for it to our knowledge. Among the whites166 it has been assigned nervine, tonic, diuretic and anti-spasmodic properties. The Herbalist167 says that the plant has nervine, tonic, and anti-spasmodic properties. It has been used by eclectic practitioners for chorea, convulsions, fits, delirium tremens and all nervous affections, supporting the nerves and quieting the system.

Hedge Nettle (Stachys palustris L.). The Forest Potawatomi have no name or use for this plant to our knowledge. Among the whites168 the whole plant is nauseant, expectorant, emmenagogue, anti-hysteric, and vulnerary. The National Dispensatory169 considers it the most important medicine of two hundred species of Stachys.

LEGUMINOSAE (BEAN FAMILY)

Red Clover (Trifolium pratense L.) "wa'waskwonemi'cûk" [flower hay]. The Forest Potawatomi did not consider this a medicine but it has been used among the whites170 for its detergent and depurga-tive properties. The flowers are the parts used and the extract of their principles have been used in ointment.

LILIACEAE (LILY FAMILY)

Northern Clintonia (Clintonia borealis [Ait.] Raf.)171 "Kockanda'-mînokwi". This Forest Potawatomi name sounds as though it should be a plant used in midwifery and our informant told us that it was employed as a medicine but did not explain its exact use. There is no record of its use by the whites to our knowledge.

Canada Mayflower (Maianthemum canadense Desf.)172 "sûksi'-mînaga'wîc" [deer weed]. The Forest Potawatomi use the root of this plant to make a medicine in curing sore throat. Among the whites173 the root has been used for its stimulant properties for diseases of the head, to produce sneezing, as an expectorant and for its mucilaginous properties.

Indian Spikenard (Smilacina racemosa [L.] Desf.) "agoñgosi'-mînaga'wîc" [chipmunk berries—little weed]. According to Mrs. Spoon the right name for this was "cûkci'mînaga'ons" [deer berries—little weed]. The Prairie Potawatomi name for the same plant was "psûksi'-mîn" [deer berries]. The Prairie Potawatomi stated that they sometimes ate the berries as a food but the Forest Potawatomi knew nothing about this practice. The smoke or smudge from the burning root, placed upon a pan of live coals, was used to revive a patient who had sunk into a coma. It was fanned toward the nostrils and a paper cone was placed over the nose to make sure that the fumes reached them. Among the whites174 the root has been used as an astringent, a tonic, a demulcent and an expectorant.

Twisted Stalk (Streptopus roseus Michx.) 175 "näwä'kîtäg" [leaning weed]. According to Mrs. Spoon, the proper name in Forest Potawatomi is "newe'ak". She used the root of the Twisted Stalk to make a cough syrup or tea. The Ojibwe likewise used the root of the Twisted Stalk, but we have no record of its use among the white.

Large-flowered White Trillium (Trillium grandiflorum [Michx.] Salisb.)176 "kesana'kwions" [bell flower]. Another name applied to this plant by the Forest Potawatomi is "macaka'ndib" [Indian turnip]. An infusion of the root is used for treating sore nipples. The infusion is drunk by the patient and the medicine man further hastens the action of the medicine by piercing the teats with a dog whisker. Under the name "birth wort" the whites177 have used the root as a parturient, a local stimulant, and a stimulant expectorant. Other authorities178 assigned to it astringent, tonic and antiseptic qualities. It has been used to treat bleeding lungs, diseases of the kidney and womb, and coughs and asthma. The root when boiled in milk, has been used as a diaphoretic and a cure for dysentery. The raw root has been pounded into a poultice to cure tumors, ulcers, and insect stings.

Large-flowered Bellwort (Uvularia grandiflora Smith)179 "näwä'-kîtäg" [leaning weed]. The Forest Potawatomi use the root of this plant for two purposes. In an infusion, it is used to cure a backache. When it is boiled down and added to lard it is used as a salve to massage sore muscles and tendons. Among the whites,180 the entire plant is used as a tonic, demulcent, nervine and hepatic. It has also been used to prevent the bad effects of poison inwardly.

LYCOPERDACEAE (PUFFBALL FUNGI)

Pinkish Puff ball (Lycoperdon subincarnatum Pk.) "teokwe'-mînûn" [headache berry]. The Potawatomi use the spores of this puff-ball for a headache powder but just how the dose is administered we were unable to discover. These spores are also used to sooth any chafing between the legs and under the armpits of an infant. It appears that this is the only member of the fungi family that the Forest Potawatomi use and that they consider all other species of fungi poisonous.

LYCOPODIACEAE (CLUB MOSS FAMILY) Common Club Moss (Lycopodium clavatum L. var. monostachyon Grev. & Hook.) "bebamabi'k" [running vine]. While the Forest Potawatomi gather this in large quantities to sell to the florists, they also use the spores of the fruiting spikes as a medicine, for their styptic and coagulant properties. Among the whites,181 the pollen or spores of the Club Moss are used in treating excoriations and as a dusting powder for infants. Another authority182 records the use of both the spores and the moss. The moss is used as a diuretic and antispasmodic and for rheumatism and epilepsy, dysentery and renal disorders. The spores have been used to protect raw surfaces, such as originate in cases of erysipelas, eczema, herpes, and ulcers.

Tree Club Moss (Lycopodium obscurum var. dendroideum [Michx.] D. C. Eaton) "sîgona'kwan" [evergreens], This is the name that was given by ’Snabe Jim and Indian George, whereas others called it "cîngwa'kocîkäsîgîk" [pine-shape of]. The Forest Potawatomi also gather this species to sell to the whites and use the spores as a medicine in the same manner as the preceding species.

MYRICACEAE (SWEET GALE FAMILY) Sweet Fern (Myrica asplenifolia L.) "cîngwako'sîngä'cîkûk" [pine shape]. The Forest Potawatomi make a tea from the leaves of the Sweet Fern to cure the itch. Among the whites,183 the whole plant has been used for its tonic, astringent and diaphoretic properties. It has been used in the treatment of fevers. Another authority184 states that the whole plant has been used for its stimulant and astringent properties to relieve colic and as a diaphoretic. It has also been used as a fomentation in the treatment of rheumatism.

Sweet Gale (Myrica Gale L.) The Forest Potawatomi have no medicinal use for this plant to our knowledge. Among the whites,185 the leaves and buds have been used for their tonic, alterative, blood purifying and vulnerary properties.

NYMPHAEACEAE (WATER LILY FAMILY)

Sweet-scented Water Lily (Nymphaea odorata [Ait.] Woodville & Wood) "nabagûck" [water lily] and "wabi'nabagack" [white water lily]. According to Pokagon,186 the root of the Sweet-scented Water Lily was used as a poulticing material when it had been pounded, but our informant did not tell us what ailments it was supposed to cure.

Yellow Pond Lily (Nuphar lutea ssp. advena Ait.) "kîtewi" [pine snake]. The Forest Potawatomi gather large quantities of the root of the Yellow Pond Lily and give it the name of pine snake, because of the appearance of the roots where the water has dried away exposing them. The writer made a trip with Mrs. Spoon to obtain a supply of this root and gathered perhaps a two-bushel sack of it. The roots were cut into quarters in order to dry better. The root is pounded into a pulp, either fresh or dried to use as a poulticing material for many inflammatory diseases. Among the whites,187 the roots are esteemed for their astringent, emollient, discutient, and demulcent properties, being esteemed in treating various female complaints. Another authority,188 states that the roots have been used among eclectic practitioners as a remedy for diarrhea, dysentery and leucorrhea.

OLEACEAE (OLIVE FAMILY)

Red Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.) "êmkwansûk" [spoon wood]. While we found no record of the use of ash for medicine among the Forest Potawatomi, the ancient medical texts are full of reference to the potency of Ash to charm and keep away serpents. Infants were fed the sap of the Ash tree to ward off attacks of serpents and the wooden rockers of the cradle were made from Ash wood for the same reason. Modern eclectic practitioners189 used a wine made from White Ash bark as a bitter tonic, astringent and anti-periodic. It has been used by them in the treatment of intermittent fevers.

ONAGRACEAE (EVENING PRIMROSE FAMILY)

Lesser Enchanters Nightshade (Circaea alpina L.) The Forest Potawatomi considered this plant adventive to their territory and have no name or use for it to our knowedge. Among the whites,190 the whole plant has been considered of value in dispelling or resolving tumors and healing fresh cuts or wounds.

Northern Willow-herb (Epilobium adenocaulon Haussk.) "wîsîgi'-bag" [bitter weed]. The Prairie Potawatomi use the root of this plant to make a tea to check diarrhea. We have no record of its use by the whites.

Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium L.) "kêgi'nano'kûk" [sharp pointed weed]. While the Forest Potawatomi use this for medicine, its use was not explained. Among the whites,191 the leaves and the root have both been used for their tonic, astringent, demulcent and emollient properties.

Common Evening Primrose (Oenothera biennis L.) "owesa'wanakûk" [yellow top]. The tiny seeds of the Evening Primrose are used for medicine among the Forest Potawatomi. Mrs. Spoon said that they were a valuable medicine but did not say for what particular ailment. Among the whites,192 the whole plant has been used for its mucillaginous properties, as an acrid agent for its value in eruptions or skin diseases and as an ornamental. Another authority193 states the whole plant has been used to make a tea to cure coughs and asthma. An ointment has been made from the extract of the plant to use in the treatment of skin diseases.

OPHIOGLOSSACEAE (ADDER'S TONGUE FAMILY)

Virginia Grape Fern (Botrychium virginianum [L.] Sw.)194 "kêdîgi'dji'bîkagûk" [zigzag root plant], "kêtkîdji'kakûk" [zigzag root plant.], "tcatcetci'kakûk" [zigzag root]. In the Prairie Potawatomi language this plant was called "kajidji'bîkûkûk" [zigzag root]. While everyone seemed to know this root and have a name for it, the writer was unable to find its application in medicines, except in combinations. The root was considered a medicine by all of them. Among the whites,195 the leaves have been valued for their astringent and vulnerary properties.

ORCHIDACEAE (ORCHID FAMILY)

Rattlesnake Plantain (Goodyera repens [L.] R.Br. ex Ait. f.), "kêdîgi'bagûk" [spotted leaf]. The Forest Potawatomi prize the root and leaves of this plant very highly because it is so hard to find and valuable to them in the treatment of female disorders. They also find it of value in the treatment of stomach and bladder diseases. Captain Jonathan Carver196 traveled among the Forest Potawatomi in 1796 and noted the use of a great many plants for medicine. Perhaps his most curious reference to the efficacy of any of these plants is in connection with this Rattlesnake Plantain. He says that the Indians used the leaves for the bite of reptiles, chewing it and applying it immediately to the wound, at the same time swallowing some of the juice. He said that the Indians, for spirituous liquor, will at any time permit a rattlesnake to drive his fangs into their flesh. He notes that the plant is most common where venomous snakes are most abundant. Among the whites197 the whole plant is esteemed for its demulcent, ophthalmic and anti-scrofulous properties. Another authority198 states that the leaves have been used in poultice form to cure severe cases of scrofula. Infusion of the leaves have been used by eclectic practitioners as a wash to cure scrofula and as a wash for diseases of the eye.

OXALIDACEAE (WOOD SORREL FAMILY)

Common Wood Sorrel (Oxalis Acetosella L.) "siwo'bîgons" [sour weed]. The Forest Potawatomi do not use this as a medicine but rather as a food. Among the whites199 the whole plant is used for its acid, refrigerant, diuretic and irritant properties. Another authority200 says that the plant has been used for its cooling and diuretic properties. It has been used in fevers, hemorrhages, gonorrhea, chronic catarrh, urinary affections, scurvy, etc.

PAPAVERACEAE (POPPY FAMILY)

Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis L.)201 "mackwasdji'bîkûkûk" [red root plant]. The Prairie Potawatomi call this plant "maskwa'we" or "mêskwa" [red]. The Forest Potawatomi steep the root for an infusion which is used to cure diphtheria, which they recognize as a disease of the throat. They also squeeze out drops of the juice on maple sugar to use as a throat lozenge to cure mild cases of sore throat. Among the whites,202 the root is used for its emetic, sedative, febrifuge, stimulant, tonic, diuretic and emmenagogue properties. Another authority203 states that the root is used for stimulant and tonic properties in cases of bronchitis, laryngitis, whooping cough, liver diseases, scrofula and dysentery. An infusion is used in skin diseases.

PARMELIACEAE (LICHENS)

Lichen (Parmelia physodes [L.] Ach.) which grows upon a spruce tree, "wakwûnûk" [egg bush]. The Potawatomi only use lichens that are found upon spruce trees and while they are apt to eat it as they find it in the woods, as a cure for constipation, it was usually soaked or boiled in water until it swelled somewhat. It is also used as a food.

PINACEAE (PINE FAMILY)

Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea [L.] Mill.)204 "kêki'ntebä" [peaked top]. The Forest Potawatomi gather the resinous exudate from the blisters on the trunk of the Balsam Fir, and use it, just as it comes from the blisters, for colds. Although they sometimes gather it in a bottle, it is more often that they go to the trees, open the blisters with their thumb nail and pick out the drops of Balsam to swallow fresh to cure a cold. Where it is gathered, it is saved in a bottle and used as a salve to heal sores. Perhaps the cure results as much from the exclusion of air from the sore surface as it does from the medicinal qualities of the Balsam. They also make an infusion of the bark to drink for curing consumption and other internal affections. Among the whites,205 the bark extract is considered stimulant, diuretic, anthelminthic, deturgent and vulnerary. The Dispensatory206 records the practice of the Hudson Bay Indians who peel the bark, leaving the resin vesicles exposed and dry it. They call this "weakoc" and apply it to wounds. According to the National Dispensatory, it is valuable for its bitter and astringent properties. Many people have made pillows from the dried leaves of the Balsam Fir for the pleasant aroma that is considered to give relief from hay-fever and colds.

Common Juniper (Juniperus communis L.) "aca'wûskonis" [yellow liquid]. The Forest Potawatomi use the berries of the Common Juniper in combination with either the American Fly Honeysuckle (Lonicera canadensis) bark or the root of the Bush Honeysuckle (Diervilla Lonicera) as a cure for various diseases of the urinary tract. In fact, the same Indian word is sometimes applied to Bush Honeysuckle as to the Common Juniper. Among the whites,207 both the inner bark and the leaves are used as an aromatic. The berries have diuretic properties.

Tamarack (Larix laricina [DuRoi] Koch)208 "monîba'namîc". The Forest Potawatomi use the bark and the leaves of the Tamarack in just the same manner as the Menomini use it. They gather bark from both the root and the trunk. The fresh inner bark is used for poulticing wounds and inflammations while the steeped bark becomes a medicinal tea. They say that it drives out inflammation and generates heat within the body. In considering this as a medicine, they say that it is equal to one man and therefore becomes a medicine by itself, without the addition of any other ingredients. The Forest Potawatomi also use it as a horse medicine. They mix the shredded inner bark with oats which are fed to the animal and this makes his hide loose so that it slips around when you pinch it. Among the whites,209 the inner bark is esteemed for its laxative, tonic, diuretic and alterative properties. The Dispensatory210 states that the bark is used to make a tamarack extract or tamarack tincture which is valuable in treating bronchitis, and chronic inflammation of the urinary passages, etc.

Black Spruce (Picea mariana [Mill.] BSP.) "kawa'ndag" [coarse evergreen]. The Forest Potawatomi make poultices from the inner bark of this swamp tree to apply to inflammations where infection is suspected. Among the whites,211 the inner bark is used for its alterative, diuretic and stimulant qualities.

Jack Pine (Pinus Banksiana Lamb.) "bêgi'wîc cîngwak" [pitchy-pine]. Among the Forest Potawatomi, the pitch is considered medicinal. The pitch is obtained from boiling the cone of the tree and the resultant pitch is the basis of an ointment. The leaves of the Jack Pine are used as a fumigant, "nokwe'sîkûn", to revive patients who are in a coma and to clear the lungs where there is congestion. We have no record of its use by the whites.

Norway Pine (Pinus resinosa Ait.) "bagkwînaga'mîc" [leaf-evergreen tree]. The Forest Potawatomi use the leaves of this pine also as a reviver or "nokwe'sîkûn" in the same manner as they use others of this same class. Among the whites,212 we have no record of its use as a medicine although it is known to yield a hard resin.

White Pine (Pinus Strobus L.) "cîngwak" [pine]. The Forest Potawatomi use the pitch or resin of the wood and the bark as the base of a salve. Among the whites,213 the inner bark and sprigs of white pine yield an extract which is noted for its expectorant properties. It has been used in many patent medicines for coughs and colds and all throat troubles.

Arbor Vitae (Thuja occidentalis L.)214 "gîciga'ntûk" [sky leaf]. The Forest Potawatomi use the leaves in making poultices and also in many combinations with other roots and leaves as medicine. It serves also as a seasoner for other compounds. It is also smudged upon coals as a purifier and is supposed to exorcise the evil spirits that are inimical to recovery. Among the whites,215 the leaves are valued for their stimulant, diaphoretic, anthelminthic, febrifuge and anti-spasmodic properties. Another authority,216 states that the branches and leaves yield an extract which is useful in treating coughs, fevers, catarrh, rheumatism and scurvy. Boiled, in lard, the leaves yield the leaf oil and make an excellent salve.

Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis [L.] Carr.)217 "kakagi'wîc" [raven's wood]. The Forest Potawatomi use the leaves of the Hemlock to brew a tea which causes the patient to break out with copious perspiration and is valuable for breaking up a cold. The inner bark of the Hemlock is mixed with other medicaments to cure the flux. It is doubtless valuable for this purpose on account of its astringent properties. Among the whites,218 the inner bark of the Hemlock is used for its astringent and diaphoretic qualities. The leaves are said to have the property of causing abortion. Another authority,219 states that the bark is a powerful astringent.

PLANTAGINACEAE (PLANTAIN FAMILY)

Common Plantain (Plantago major L.) "anakogo'wûck" [choke weed]. According to Mrs. Spoon, the proper name for this plant is "nonagonawûck soskwosa'wanagaä'cikîk" [fernmuskrat- tail-like]. According to the Prairie Potawatomi, the name of it is "mûkitca'kwo" [spotted frog]. The Forest Potawatomi have a use suggested by the first name given,—choke weed. When the root is boiled, it furnishes a slippery fluid. A patient who is choking upon a bone in the throat is given this fluid to drink, which will so lubricate the lining of the throat that the bone will either pass on down the throat or can be coughed up. The Forest Potawatomi also use the heated leaf of the plant, to bind upon swellings and inflammations. Among the whites,220 the entire plant has alterative, diuretic, antiseptic and antisyphilitic properties. Another authority,221 says that the leaves have been used in infusions to ease the phlegm in tuberculosis. The fresh leaves have been used to dress wounds and heal sores. When bound over the anus, they have been said to cure protruding piles.

POLYGONACEAE (BUCKWHEAT FAMILY)

Hartwright's Persicaria (Polygonum amphibium L. var. Hartwrightii [Gray] Bissell) "aîanko'gînîak" [crooked]. The Forest Pota-watomi used the root of this as a medicine but the particular use was not stated. Among the whites,222 the root of this plant has been used for a blood purifier. According to the Dispensatory223 about forty species of Polygonum have been reported as being used for medicine.

Carey's Persicaria (Polygonum Careyi Oiney) "îaîanko'gînk" [jointed]. The Forest Potawatomi use the entire plant to make a tea to cure a cold that is accompanied by fever. We have no record of its use among the whites.

Fringed Black Bindweed (Polygonum cilinode Michx.) "bebamaki'k" [running vine]. The Forest Potawatomi do not know this plant and therefore have no specific name for it other than "running vine". They have no use for it to our knowledge. We have no record of its use among the whites.

Black Bindweed (Polygonum Convolvulus L.) The Forest Potawatomi have no name or use for this plant to our knowledge. Among the whites224 it is recorded that the seed of this species has been used for food the same as buckwheat.

Dock-leaved Persicaria (Polygonum lapathi-folium L.) "wisa'-gîbag""[bitter weed]. According to Mrs. Spoon, the name for this plant is "a'ianko'geneak" [jointed weed]. The whole plant is used by the Forest Potawatomi to make a tea for curing fevers. We have no record of its use by the whites.

Arrow-leaved Tear-thumb (Polygonum sagittatum L.) "äsûkîta'-boe" [stickers]. While this plant is given a name, descriptive of its properties by the Potawatomi, it was not used as medicine to our knowledge. We have no record of its use among the whites.

Great Water Dock (Rumex Britannica L.) While there is no Indian name given to this plant by the Forest Potawatomi as far as we know, still they use the root as a blood purifier. Among the whites,225 the root is considered to have the same properties as Rumex crispus which are alterative, tonic, blood purifying, astringent and antiscorbutic. The Dispensatory,226 states that the root has tonic, laxative, alterative and diuretic properties. It has been used in cases of scorbutus, cutaneous scrofula, cancer, syphilis, leprosy, elephantiasis, and as a blood purifier. The fresh root has been boiled in lard to furnish an ointment for the treatment of scrofula.

POLYPODIACEAE (FERN FAMILY)

Maidenhair Fern (Adiantum pedatum L.) "memakate'wîga'têûk" [black leg]. The Forest Potawatomi used an infusion of the root to cure caked breasts in the nursing mother. It is drunk as a tea. Among the whites,227 the entire plant has been used for its pectoral, mucilaginous, expectorant, refrigerant and tonic properties. Another authority228 says that the herb has been used for its refrigerant, expectorant, tonic and sub-astringent properties. It has been used as a decoction in febrile diseases, helps coughs, catarrh, hoarseness, influenza, asthma and pleurisy.

Crested Shield Fern (Aspidium cristatum [L.] Sw.) "nonagûna'-wûsk" [fern or milk breast]. The Forest Potawatomi have no medicinal use for this plant to our knowledge. We have no record of its use by the whites.

Lady Fern (Asplenium Filix-femina [L.] Bernh.) "nonagona'wûsk" [milk weed], and "nanagana'wûck" [milk weed]. This is the common Indian word among the Forest Potawatomi for all ferns and is probably derived from the use to which they put many of the roots. A root tea is made for relieving caked breasts in a nursing mother. It is also used for various female disorders. Among the whites,229 the root is used for its anthelminthic and vermifuge properties.

PRIMULACEAE (PRIMROSE FAMILY)

Tufted Loosestrife (Lysimachia thyrsiflora L.). This plant was unknown to the Forest Potawatomi and they had no name or use for it to our knowledge. We have no record of its use among the whites.

American Starflower (Trientalis americana [Pers.] Pursh.). The Forest Potawatomi did not know this plant and had no name or use for it to our knowledge. We have no record of its use among the whites.

RANUNCULACEAE (CROWFOOT FAMILY)

Red Baneberry (Actaea rubra [Ait.] Willd.) "wasgobîdji'-bîkeok" [sweet root plant]. The Forest Potawatomi used the root of the Red Baneberry to make a tea administered to purge the patient of after-birth. Among the whites,230 the root has been used for its purgative and emetic properties. According to the Dispensatory,231 the Baneberry root greatly resembles in appearance and properties the Black Cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa) and has been wholly substituted for it in many cases. It has been used in cases of ovarian neuralgia, uterine tenderness, subinvolution, and as a substitute for digitalis in the treatment of fatty or irritable heart. It affords some relief for a headache which is due to eye strain.

Goldthread (Coptis trifolia [L.] Salisb.)232 "asa'wasdji'bîkêns" [small yellow root]. The Forest Potawatomi used the thread-like root of this plant for curing sore gums and for lessening the pain of teething babies. Carver233 wrote about the use of the Goldthread root by the Potawatomi Indians to cure mouth sores. Among the whites,234 the root has been used for its bitter and tonic properties and for the treatment of mouth cankers. Another authority,235 states that the root has been used for its bitter and tonic properties resembling quassia and columbo without their astringent properties. The root extract has been used in cases of dysentery and chronic inflammation of the stomach.

Liverleaf (Hepatica triloba Chaix.)236 "asawûsk" [yellow weed]. The Prairie Potawatomi name for this plant is "wawitci'pasa". The Forest Potawatomi use the root and the leaves to make a sweetish-tasting tea to relieve cases of vertigo. Among the whites,237 the entire plant is valued for its mucilaginous, astringent, hepatic and pectoral properties. Another authority238 says that the entire plant is mucilaginous and astringent and used in infusions in fevers, diseases of the liver, bleeding from the lungs, coughs, etc.

Bristly Crowfoot (Ranunculus pennsylvanicus L. f.) "asa'wûck" [yellow weed]. Mrs. Spoon uses the entire plant of the Bristly Crowfoot for an astringent medicine, disease unstated. Among the whites239 the entire plant is used for its acrid, rubi-facient, counterirritant, and narcotic properties.

Purple Meadow Rue (Thalictrum dasycarpum Fisch. & Lall.)240 "akwatîci'wûk" [mint leaf]. The Prairie Potawatomi called this plant "kakaki'wûskwe" [crow woman weed], and the seed of the plant is used as a love medicine. When a man and his wife have been quarreling, the seeds are surreptitiously placed in their food to overcome the quarrelsome dispositions. The Forest Potawatomi use the leaves and the seeds in combination with other materials to cure the cramps. The seeds are peppered upon the surface of poultices to make them more effective. Among the whites,241 the root of Purple Meadow Rue is valued for its purgative and diuretic properties. The Dispensatory242 says that the Purple Meadow Rue contains berberine and has been used as a bitter and a tonic, especially useful in treating leucorrhea.

RHAMNACEAE (BUCKTHORN FAMILY)

Alder-leaved Buckthorn (Rhamnus alnifolia L'Her.) "mûkwo'mînaga'wîc" [bear weed]. The Forest Potawatomi use the inner bark of the buckthorn for a physic. It is probably as useful as the white man's medicine Rhamnus cathartica from which Cascara Sagrada is obtained, although there is no record of the Alder-leaved Buckthorn being used by the whites.243

ROSACEAE (ROSE FAMILY)

Agrimony (Agrimonia gryposepala Wallr.) "äsûkîtä'boe" [stickers], The Forest Potawatomi have no medicinal use for this plant to our knowledge but the Prairie Potawatomi, under the name "sukitapua" [stickers], use the plant as a styptic and snuff an infusion up the nostrils to stop the nose-bleed. Among the whites,244 the entire plant was used for its astringent properties and tonic effect upon the stomach. The Dispensatory245 records the use of the root and leaves as a mild tonic, alterative and astringent. It says that Indians in Canada and the United States have used the root for reducing fevers.

Juneberry (Amelanchier spicata [Lam.] K. Koch) "bosîkwa'-komînûn" [plum-berry]. The Forest Potawatomi use the root bark of the Juneberry to make a tonic. Under the name "gozikwa'kominuk" [thorny-berry], the Ojibwe of Lac du Flambeau use the bark for medicine but we do not know for what ailment. The Pillager Ojibwe under the same name, say that the bark is used to make a tea for the expectant mother. We have no record of its use for medicine by the whites.

Black Chokeberry (Pyrus [Aronia] melanocarpa [Michx.] Willd.) "nîki'mînûn" [wild goose-berry]. Another informant called it "sakwako'mînûn" or "sakwako'mînawûnj". The Forest Potawatomi steep the berry to make a tea to cure a cold. Among the whites,246 the berries are used for their astringent properties. The Dispensatory247 says that the bark has been used among eclectic practitioners for its astringent properties.

Bicknell's Thorn (Crataegus rotundifolia Moench var. Bicknellii Eggleston) "mînesaga'wîc" [thorn bush]. The Forest Potawatomi use the apples as a medicine to cure stomach complaints. Among the whites,248 the leaves have been used in medicines considered proper for relieving infections of the chest. The Dispensatory249 says that the apples have been used for their astringent and heart tonic properties.

European Wood Strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.) "ate'imîn bagogä'cikîk" [heartberry-leaf-resembles]. The Forest Potawatomi use the root of the strawberry for the treatment of stomach complaints. Among the whites,250 the leaves have been valued for their astringent, tonic and diuretic properties, while the fruit has been ascribed diuretic and refrigerant properties. Another authority251 says that a tea has been made from the herb which has astringent and tonic properties. The infusion has been used for convalescents especially children, who are recovering from bowel and bladder weaknesses

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Rough Cinquefoil (Potentilla monspeliensis L.)

"ä'sûkîtä'boe" [stickers]. The root of this plant is known to be medicine to the Forest Potawatomi but our informant was not able to tell us the malady it is supposed to cure. Among the white,252 the root has been valued for its astringent properties.

Marsh Cinquefoil (Potentilla palustris [L.] Scop.). We have no record of a name or use for this plant by the Forest Potawatomi nor of its use by the whites.

Bird Cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica L. f.) "wîgwa'ssimîne'son" [birch cherries]. The Forest Potawatomi use the inner bark of the Bird Cherry to make a tea to cure a cough and alleviate internal pain. Among the whites,253 the inner bark is esteemed for its bitter, acrid, tonic, and astringent properties.

Wild Cherry (Prunus serotina Ehrh.)254 "okwe'mînûn" [grub-worm berry]. The Forest Potawatomi use the inner bark of the Wild Cherry as a seasoner for other combinations of medicines. Among the whites,255 the inner bark is valued for its bitter, tonic, stimulant, sedative, pectoral and poisonous properties. Another authority256 says that the inner bark is valued for its sedative, pectoral, aromatic and bitter, tonic and astringent properties. It has been used by eclectic practitioners in treating consumption, coughs, bronchitis, scrofula, heart palpitation, stomach atony, dyspepsia and hectic fevers.

Choke Cherry (Prunus virginiana L.)257 "sûswe'mînaga'wîc" [choke bush]. The Prairie Potawatomi name is very similar for this tree�?soswa'mînûn" [choke berry]. The Forest Potawatomi use the bark for an eye-wash and make a tonic drink from the berries. The Dispensatory258 states that Choke Cherry is official in our pharmacopoeas but is actually made from Prunus serotina. It has a sedative action which is quite transitory, but the syrup of Wild Cherry bark makes a pleasing mask for other drugs.

Mountain Ash (Sorbus americana [Marsh.] DC.) "mûkwo'mîc" [bear timber]. The Forest Potawatomi state that the bear eats the berries of the Mountain Ash and that they use the inner bark for a medicine, but we were unable to find out what ailments it was supposed to cure. Among the whites,259 the inner bark is esteemed among eclectic practitioners for its astringent, tonic and detergent properties while the fruit is considered an esculent and an antiscorbutic.

European Mountain Ash (Sorbus Aucuparia [L.] Ehrh.) "mûkwo' mînaga'wîc" [bear bush]. It is rather peculiar to find a Forest Potawatomi using this cultivated tree for medicine. It is very likely that the native Mountain Ash so much resembles the cultivated one that they mistook the identification of this plant. The leaves are used to make a tea for colds. The leaves are steeped in hot water, which causes the patient to vomit and at that time the extra mucous is expelled. This makes it valuable in their estimation for the treatment of pneumonia, diphtheria and croup. Among the whites,260 the bark is esteemed for its astringent, tonic and detergent properties. The fruit is considered edible and a preventative of scurvy. The Dispensatory261 says that the fruit has been used as an anti-scorbutic.

Smooth Rose (Rosa blanda Ait.)262 "cipitiä'mîn" [toilet paper]. The Prairie Potawatomi also call this plant "sipitiä'mîn". The Forest Potawatomi use the root of the Smooth Rose for medicine whereas the Prairie Potawatomi use the skin of the rose hips. The Forest Potawatomi make a tea for the treatment of lumbago and headaches. Among the whites,263 the flowers of the Smooth Rose are used among eclectic practitioners for their astringent, tonic and ophthalmic properties.

Blackberry (Rubus allegheniensis Porter)264 "kate'omînûk" [black berry plant]. The name for this plant assigned to it by the Forest Potawatomi, is doubtless a shortening of "makate'mîsku'mînog" [blackberry bushes], as it is given by Pokagon.265 The Prairie Potawatomi call it "kêtä'mîn" which is evidently also a shortened form of Blackberry and they use the root bark for treating sore eyes. The Forest Potawatomi, however, did not have any medicinal use for the plant as far as we found, using it only for food. Among the whites,266 the fruit is considered edible, diuretic and astringent, while the bark is considered astringent. The Dispensatory267 records the use of the root bark for its tonic and astringent properties. It has been used in treating the summer diarrhea of children and adults. Another authority268 records the use of the leaves, the root and the fruit for their astringent and tonic properties. It says that it is used for indigestion, to cure a coated tongue and to remove tenacious and offensive saliva.

Red Raspberry (Rubus idaeus L. var. aculeatissimus [C. A. Mey.] Regel & Tiling),269 "maskwo'mînaga'wûck" [red berry bush]. The root of the Red Raspberry is made into an infusion to use as an eye wash by the Forest Potawatomi. Among the whites,270 the bark of the root, the root and the leaves are all considered medicinal and astringent. A decoction of the leaves or of the inflorescence is reported to be an excellent remedy in diarrhea, dysentery and cholera infantum. It has also been used as a wash and injection for leucorrhea, gleet, gonorrhea and prolapsus uteri. A decoction of the leaves has been combined with cream by eclectic practitioners to suppress nausea and vomiting. It has also been sometimes used as an aid to labor to promote uterine contractions where ergot has failed. Another authority271 considers the fruit as esculent and laxative, while a decoction of the leaves has been used for its anti-emetic, purgative and astringent properties. The Dispensatory272 records the use of root syrup of the Red Raspberry as a refrigerant, mild laxative and dietetic.

Willow-leaved Meadow-sweet (Spiraea salicifolia L.) "cêskwo'mîc" [muskrat bush]. Among the Forest Potawatomi, the bark is considered medicinal but the use of this medicine was not stated.

Among the whites,273 he root of this plant is valued for its tonic and esculent properties, while the herbage is used for its astringent and diuretic properties. The Dispensatory274 considers the plant to be identical in value with Spiraea Filipendula in which case the herbage is used for an astringent and diuretic.

RUBIACEAE (MADDER FAMILY)

Rough Bedstraw (Galium asprellum Michx.). The Forest Potawatomi have no name or use for this plant to our knowledge. Among the whites,275 the entire plant is used in the same manner as Galium Aparine for its demulcent and diuretic properties.

RUTACEAE (RUE FAMILY)

Prickly Ash (Zanthoxylum americanum Mill.). Carver276 reports on his travels that he found the Forest Potawatomi using the root bark of Prickly Ash to effect a cure for gonorrhea. We found none of the present day Forest Potawatomi using this medicine, perhaps because it grew too far away from their immediate vicinity. Undoubtedly they do use the Prickly Ash as all of our other Wisconsin Indians do. Among the whites,277 the bark is used for its pungent, stimulant, sialogo-gic, alterative and tonic properties. The Dispensatory278 says that the medicinal qualities of Zanthoxylum are not well defined. It has mild diaphoretic properties due to its stimulant action upon the circulation and nervous system. It has been used locally as an irritant and has been used as a sialogogue and a topical application to influence deep-seated inflammation. Another authority279 states that it has been used as a stimulant, tonic, alterative and sialogogue. The berries are stimulant, carminative and anti-spasmodic, acting particularly upon the mucous tissues.

SALICACEAE (WILLOW FAMILY)

Balsam Poplar (Populus balsamifera L.) "macamîdi's" [poplar]. Another informant gives it the name "manasa'dis" [perfume poplar]. The Forest Potawatomi count this one of their most valuable remedies for making salve. The winter buds are melted with mutton or bear tallow to form an ointment for persistent sores and to cure eczema. Among the whites,280 the resinous buds have been used as a balsamic ingredient of plasters. Another authority281 states that the buds are valued for their stimulant, tonic, diuretic and anti-scorbutic properties. A tincture of the buds is used in stomach and kidney trouble to cure scurvy and rheumatism. Gout and rheumatism are treated by extracts of the bark which is known to be tonic and cathartic.

Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) "mîdis" [Aspen]. The Forest Potawatomi sometimes use the Ojibwe name for this "asa'dis" [rabbit food]. The Prairie Potawatomi call it "mîtwi". The Forest Potawatomi burn the bark of the Quaking Aspen and save the ashes to mix with lard which forms a salve to apply to sores upon horses. Among the whites282 the bark is valued for its tonic, stomachic, febrifuge and aperient properties. Another authority283 records the use of the bark and leaves in acute rheumatism, to lower the temperature in fevers, to relieve pain and to reduce arterial swellings, to treat coryza, hay-fever, influenza, neuralgia and diabetes. Among eclectic practitioners, it has been used externally as a wash for gangrenous wounds, eczema, cancer, burns, fetid perspiration and as a wash. When it is used as a wash, borax is added to the bark extract.

Pussy Willow (Salix discolor Muhl.) "sisigo'bamîc" [willow]. Among the Forest Potawatomi, the bark is a universal remedy and any species of willow will have approximately the same Indian name as here given. The root bark is boiled down to make a tea, which is used in stopping a hemorrhage. We find that the willow galls have no meaning to the Potawatomi whereas they were valuable for medicine to the Menomini, because they were galls rather than because they were from a willow tree. Among the whites,284 the bark has been used among eclectic practitioners for its bitter, astringent, antiseptic, deturgent and aperient properties. The buds have been considered anti-aphrodisiac. The Dispensatory285 states that the bark has been used as a stomachic and aperient by eclectics, for the treatment of intermittent fevers, but is rarely used now.

Slender Willow (Salix petiolaris J. E. Smith) "sisigo'bamîc" [willow]. The Slender Willow is used by the Forest Potawatomi in the same manner as others of the willows and particularly just as Salix discolor was used by the Forest Potawatomi and also by the whites.

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